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AUTHOR: 


SCHMITZ,  LEONHARD 


TITLE: 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN 
LITERATURE  ... 


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HE\N  YORK 


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Sohinitz,  Leonliard,1007-1890« 

A  hiGtory  of  Latin  literature,   by  Leonhard 
ITorr  York,   Rttnan's  sons,    rlPjlJl^ 
17   en. 


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A    HISTORY 


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LATIN  LITERATURE. 


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BY 


LEONHABD  SCHMITZ,   LL.D, 

CLASSICAL  EXAMINER  IN  THE  UKIVERSIXY  OF  i.ONI,'o«. 


1^  1 


G. 


NEW    YORK: 
P.     PUTNAM'S     SONS, 
182  FIFTH  AVENUE. 


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11 


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PEEFACE. 


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i! 


It  seems  strange  that  in  this  country,  where  Latin  is  taught 
in  all  the  public  and  even  in  most  of  the  middle-class  schools, 
there  does  not  exist,  as  far  as  I  know,  a  concise  general  his- 
tory of  Latin  Literature  that  might  be  put  into  the  hands 
of  young  students,  and  give  them  a  succinct  history  of  its 
treasures,  of  its  gradual  development,  and  ultimate  decay. 
I  have  endeavoured  to  supply  this  want  in  a  manner  which, 
I  hope,  may  be  acceptable  not  only  to  the  student  of  Latin' 
but  to  educated  readers  in  general,  who  cannot  fail  to  take 
an  interest  in  the  literature  of  a  people  that  has  exercised, 
and  is  still  exercising,  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  civilised 
world. 

I  might  have  confined  myself  to  those  pai-ts  of  Latin 
Literature  which  are  still  extant,  or  even  to  those  writers 
whose  works  really  deserve  the  name  of  classical,  and  are 
commonly  read  in  schools  and  universities;  but  in  eithei 
case  I  should  have  conveyed  a  most  inadequate  and  partial 
idea  of  what  Latin  Literature  really  was,  or  rather  has 
been.     I  have,  therefore,  thought  it  preferable  to  give  a 
complete,  though  very  brief,  survey  of  the  whole  domain  of 
literature,  from  its  rudest   beginnings  down  to   the   time 
when  the  Latin  language  in  Italy  and  the  Latinised  pro^dnces 
of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Africa  was  losing  its  original  character,' 
and,  under  the  influence  of  the  conquerors,  entered  upon  an 
entirely  new  development,  which  in  the  end  produced  the 
modem   languages  of  Italy,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal.^ 
The  languages  thus  gradually  formed  out  of  Latin  were  at 
first  scarcely  suited  to  be  employed  for  literary  purposes,  and 
hence  ancient  Latin  still  continued  for  centuries  to  be  used' 
by  both  the  conquered  and  the  conquerors  as  the  language 
of  literature.     In  many  cases  the  men  who  wrote  Latin  had 
learned  it,  as   a  new  or  foreign  language,  in  addition  to 
their  own  mother  tongue;  and  until  that  time,  about  the 


II 


8011 


/m,j 


PREFACE, 


beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  the  Latin  language  and 
literature  cannot  be  said  to  have  really  died  out,  and  down 
to  that  time,  accordingly,  I  have  carried  its  history.  No 
kind  of  literary  production  has  been  excluded ;  even  gram- 
mars and  school-books  and  other  technical  worki?  have 
received  their  share  of  attention.  The  specific  Christian 
or  theological  writers  of  the  third,  fourth,  and  following 
centuries  have  been  left  unnoticed  in  some  continental  works 
on  Latin  Literature  ;  but,  as  they  spoke  and  wrote  in  Latin, 
and  as,  during  the  later  centuries,  it  was  more  especially  the 
great  Christian  writers  who,  in  their  apologetical  and  polemi- 
cal works,  kept  up  a  vigorous  literary  life  in  Italy  and  other 
parts  of  the  empire,  their  principal  writings,  and  especially 
those  that  are  of  interest  to  scholars,  have  been  briefly 
noticed.  Their  theological  views  could  not,  of  course,  be 
discussed  in  a  work  like  the  present. 

The  study  of  Latin  Literature  has  for  many  a  year  been 
one  of  my  favourite  pursuits,  and  I  have  gone  through  nearly 
all  that  remains  of  it ;  but  in  composing  the  present  manual 
I  have  also  availed  myself  of  the  labours  of  those  who  have 
preceded  me  in  this  department  of  learning.  The  works  to 
v/hich  I  am  chiefly  indebted  are — J.  A.  Fabricius,  Bihliotheca 
Latina,  edited  by  Ernesti :  Leipzig,  1823,  in  3  vols. ;  Bahr's 
Geschichte  der  Romischen  Literatur :  Carlsruhe,  1844,  in  2 
vols. ;  Bernhardy,  Grundriss  der  R'&niischen  Literatur^  Dritte 
Bearheitung :  Braunschweig,  1857;  and  more  especially  to 
W.  S.  Teuflel's  Geschichte  der  Romischen  Literatur :  Leipzig, 
1870.  This  last  work,  of  which  an  English  translation  by 
Dr.  W.  Wagner  has  recently  been  published,  is  of  the  highest 
value  to  scholars  by  its  ample  quotations  of  authorities,  which 
enable  the  student  to  form  his  own  opinion  on  every  quesr 
tion.  I  have,  on  the  whole,  adopted  Teuflel's  arrangement 
of  the  subject,  giving  an  account  of  all  the  writers  who 
flourished  during  the  same  period,  so  as  to  present  to  the 
reader  a  brief  synoptical  view  of  each  period. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  mention  of  one  or  two  good  editions 
of  every  author,  in  footnotes,  will  be  a  useful  addition,  espe- 
cially to  younger  students, 

L.  SCHMITZ. 

London,  June  1877, 


CONTENTS. 


TliC  numbers  refer  to  the  pages  of  the  book. 


Introduction,  . 


FIRST  PERIOD. 
From  b.c.  753  to  b.c.  240. 


A.  Metrical  Remains,  12.— Carmen  Saliorum.  12;  The  Fratres  Arvales, 

]3;   Carmina  Vatum,  K^;  JNemae,  13;  Songs  sung  at  banquets, 
13;  Fescennini  versus,  14;  Atellanse,  14;  Saturae,  15. 

B.  Remains  in  Prose,  15. — Annales  Maximi,  16;  Commentarii  Ma- 

gistratuum,  17;  Privata  Monumenta,  17;  Foedera,  18;  Leges, 
18;  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  19;  Oratory,  19.  

SECOND  PERIOD. 
From  b.c.  240  to  about  b.c.  150. 

A.  Poets  of  the  Second  Period,  23. — Cn.  Marcius,  23;  Livius  Androni- 

cus,  23;  Cn.  Naevius,  24;  T.  Maccius_£lailtJis,  25;  Q.  Ennius,  28; 
M.  Pacuvius,  30;  Csecilius  Statius,  31;  Trabea,  Atilius,  Licinius 
Imbrex,  Luscius  Lavinius,  31;  Publlus  Terentius,  32;  Titinius, 
Turpilius,  L.  Attius  or  Accius,  34;  Juventius,  Valerius,  A.  Ful- 
vius  Labeo,  Popillius  Lsenas,  36. 

B.  Prose   Writers  of  the  Second  Period,  36. — G.  Fabius  Pictor,  36; 

Clncius  Alimentus,  36;  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  C.  Acilius  Glabrio, 
37;  M.  Porcius  Cato,  37;  C.  Acilius,  40;  A.  Postumius  Albinus, 
P.  Scipio  Nasica,  41. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 
From  about  b.c.  150  to  about  b.c.  80. 

A.  Poets  of  the  Third  Period,  43.— T.  Quinctius  Atta,  43;  L.  Afranius, 

43;  C.  LucilUis,  44;  Pompilius,  Valerius  -^dituus,  Porcius  Li- 
cinius, "QT^utatius  Catulus,  C.  Valerius  Soranus,  C.  Julius 
Caesar  Strabo,  L.  Pomponius,  Novius,  45. 

B.  Prose    Writers  of  the   Third  Period,  45.— Scipio  Africanus,  45; 

Fabius  ^Emilianus,  Sulpicius  Galba,  M.  Lepidus,  Furius  Philus, 
Q.  Metellus  Macedonicus,  46;  Cassius  Hemina,  L.  Calpurnius 
Piso  Frugi,  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Servilianus,  Cn.  Gellius,  46;  M'. 
Manilius,  M.  Junius  Brutus,  P.  Mucins  Scoevola,  P.  Licinius 


CONTENTS. 

Crassus,  C.  Fannius,  L.  CsbUus  Antipater,  47;  P.  Sempronius 
Asellio,  C.  Sempronius  Tuditanos,  Junius  Gracclianus,  P.  Ruti- 
1ms  Rufus,  Q.  Lutatius  Catulus,  48;  .^Elius  Praeconinus  Stilo,  Cn. 
Matius,  Hostius,  Q.  Furius,  49;  Cn.  Aufidius,  Q.  Claudius  Qua- 
drigarius,  Valerius  Antias,  L.  Cornelius  Sisenna,  50;  C.  Liclniua 
Macer,  51;  L.  Cornelius  Sulla,  L.  Licinius  Lucullus,  51;  C.  Piso, 
L.  Voltacilius  Pilutus,  62;  the  Rhetorica  ad  Herennium  (Corni- 
ncius),  52. 


FOURTH  PERIOD. 

From  about  b.c.  80  to  a.d.  14. 

A.  From  the  Dictatorship  of  Sulla  to  tJie  Consulship  of  Cicero,  56.— 

M.  TerentiusVarro,  57;  his  Writings  on  History  and  Antiquities, 
58;  works  on  Literature  and  Literary  History,  59.  Q.  Horten- 
sius,  61;  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  61;  M.  TuUius  Cicero,  62;  his 
Orations,  65;  his  Rhetorical  Works,  71;  his  Philosophical 
Works,  73;  his  Works  on  Jurisprudence  and  History,  78-  his 
Correspondence,  79;  his  Poetical  Works,  80.  Q.  TuUius  Cicero, 
81;  M.  TuUius  Tiro,  81;  Decimus  Laberius,  82;  M.  Furius  Biha- 
culus,  82;  P.  Syrus,  82. 

B.  From  Cicero's  Consulship  to  his  Death,  83.— C.  Julius  Casar,  83; 

His  Commentarii,  85.  Cornelius  Nepos,  86;  P.  Nigldlus  Flgulus' 
87;  Valerius  Cato,  88;  OrbiUus  PupiUus,  88;  Lucretius  Cams,  88- 
C  Sallustius  Crispus.  90;  Q.  .Elius  Tubero.  92;  P.  Alfenus  Varus' 
93;  C.  Matius,  93;  C  Seribonius  Curio,  93;  Q.  Comificiuss,  93; 
M.  Antony,  93;  L.  Balbus,  93;  Ateius  Prsetextatus,  93;  P,  Teren- 
tins  Varro  Attacinus,  93;  Tanusius,  94;  M.  Junius  Brutus,  Deci- 
mus Brutus,  C.  Cassius,  Cassius  of  Parma,  C.  Trebonius,  Ti 
Ampius  Balbus,  M.  Antonius  Naso,  Ticidas,  C.  Helvius  Cinna, 
94;  C.  Licinius  Calvus,  95;  C.  Valerius  Catullus,  95;  the  Acta 
Uiuma,  97. 

C.  The  Augustan  Age,  97.— Augustus,  99;  C.  Cilnius  Maecenas,  100- 

M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa,  100;  C.  Asinius  PoUio,  101;  M.  Valerius 
Messala  Corvinus,  102;  L.  Varius  Rufus,  102;  JEmiUus  Macer 
103;  P.  Vergilius  Maro,  103;  Q.  Horatius  Flaccus,  109;  C.  Val- 
gius  Rufus,  Aristius  Fuscus,  Fundanius,  Servius  Sulpicius,  113- 
Domitius  Marsus,  113;  Albius  TibuUus,  114;  Sextus  Propertius' 
llo;  P  Ovldius  Naso,  116;  Ponticus,  Tuticanus,  Macer,  SabiiMis,' 
Comehus  Severus,  Pedo  Albinovanus,  120;  Gratius  FaUscus,  121- 
M.  Manilius,  121;  Titus  Livius,  122;  Pompeius  Trogus,  124- 
lenesteUa,  L.  Arruntius,  Annius  Fetialis,  125;  M.  Verrius  Flac- 
cus, 125;  C.  Julius  HyginuB,  126;  Santra,  Sinnius  Capito,  127- 
Vitruvius  PolUo^S;  C.  .Elius  GaUus,  M.  Antistius  LabeJ,  128- 
C.  Ateius  CapitoTT:  Labienus,  Cassius  Severus,  129;  M.  Ann»us 
Seneca,  130;  P.  Eutilius  Lupus,  131. 


CONTENTS. 


FIFTH  PERIOD. 

The  Period  from  the  Death  of  Augustus  to  the  End  of 

THE  Empire. 

A.  Laim  Literature  during  the  First  Christian  Century,  133. -Tiberius 
134;  A.  Cremutius  Cordus,  134;  Aufidius  BassusVl35-  M  VeUeiua 

Is '.' P^«dris'\.'^'''^^r''^^  ^-  ^oment'^'e'l:li^^^ 

138.'  CKn^!'  li^  /^^«*"^.g^i«\ed  Jurists  and  Grammarians 
ifn!  n  P«ir'  l^f'  ^Snw^^,  Nero,  139;  L.  Ann»us  Seneca 
140;  Q.  Curtius  Rufus,  143;  L.  Junius  Moderatus  ColumeUa  144- 
Q.  Asconius  Ped^us,  145;  Pomponius  Mela,  145;  Orators  ^d 
Philosophers,  146;  M.  Valerius  Probus,  147;  A.  Persius  Hacc^ 

irwt^'  t?n  *S^  n^i^^""^^'  ^t^'  C^si^s  Bassus,  ]50;  Petronius 
P^em  Jpfn^'  T.  Ca Ipuniius  Siculus,  Aurdius  NemeWanus,  the 
^oem  ^tna,  and  the  Latin  Abridgment  of  the  lUad,  152-  C 
PUnius  Secundus,   153;  M.  Licinius  Crassus  Mucian^    155.  c 

Martiais  ^    t'    a^'  ^;-  ^^Si^?'  t*^**^^'  ^^7;  M.  Valerius 
Martialls,  158;  L.  Arruntius  SteUa,  Turnus,  Virginius  Rufus 
Vestricius  Spurimia,  159;  Sulpicia,  M.  Fabius  Quinlilianus,  160 

^*   ■^Tnvl.^/f^'f^r  i'''"'^.  ^^^  '^''^"^  ^^^^"^2/,    163.-D.   Junius 
Juvenalis,   165;   Cornelius  Tacitus,   166;   C.   Plinius  Cfficillna 
secundus,  170;  P  Annius  Florus,  Flavins  Caper^^uL  Lon^^^^^ 
Hyginus,  Balbus,  Siculus  Flaccus,  173;  Hadriii   173-  c    Sue 
tonius  TranquiUus.   174;  JuUus  riorus;  176fs"Wus  'juUanS:; 
176 ;  Aburnms  Valens,  Sextus  Pomponius,  Antonius  Julianus 
T.  Castncius   Calpumius  Flaccus,  Q.  Terentius  Scaurus,  cSs 
Aurehanus,  177;  M.  ComeUus  Pronto,  178-  L   Amnellus    lio^ 
Granius  Licinianus,  181;  Pervigilium  Veneris,  IstTcSu^^^^^ 
Apo^lmaris  182;  A  GeUius,  182?  Sex.  Julius  AfrLanus,TereSs 
Clemens,  Junius  Mauricianus,  L.  Volusius   Marcian^s,   Ulp  us 
MarceUus,  183;  Gains,  183;  M.  Aurelius.  184;  L.  Apuleius  [S 

P«n?nTJ±'''i«S''n^n' -^P^""'  '^^^^^^^  Paternus,  189;  JP.^uut 
Papinianus,  189;  CaUistratus,  A.  Claudius  Trvphonius  ArriiTs 
Menander,  Tertullian,  190;  M.  Minucius  FeU^?^  Treptoius 
Florens  TertuUianus    191;  Helenius  Acro^  i^mpoS^or 
phynon,  Dositheus,  Serenus  Sammonicus,  Festus,  192. 
C.  Latin  Literature  during  the  Third  Century,  192. -Domitius  UIdI- 
anus.  193;  Julius  Paulus,  193;  ^lius  Ma^ianus,  Mus  AlLer, 
Herenmus    Modestmus,    Gregorianus,    194;    Julius    Romanus 
Censormus  Atilms  Fortunatianus,  194;  Marius  MaximifnuS 
Cordus,  195;  Tlia^cius  CsecUius  Cyprianus,  195;  NovatianusS 
Alfius  Avitus,  Marianus,  Septimius  Serenus,  Q.  Serenus  Sam' 
momcus,  196  ;  M.  Antonius  Gordianus,  Comnlodlanus,  M.  Aur^- 

i^QT.  ir^'^i'  ^.'"""'^^T',  ^^.^>  Scriptores  Historic  August®. 
197;  .Ehus  fepartiauus,  Vulcatms  GaUicanus,  TrebeUius  PoUio, 


8 


CONfEi^fS. 


Flavins  Vopiscus,  iElius  Lampridius,  Julius  Capitolinus,  WS; 
Aquila  Romanus,  Juba,  Marius  Plotius  Sacerdos,  C.  Julius  Solinus, 
Nonius  MarceUus,  199;  Terentianus,  200;  ArnoMus,  200;  Lac- 
tantius  Firmianus,  201;  Eumenius,  203. 

D.  Latin  Literature  during  the  Fourth  Century  after  Christ,  203. — 
The  Emperor  Constantine,  204;  Nazarius,  Publilius  Porphyrius 
Optatianus,  C.  Julius  Victor,  204;  C.  Vettius  Aquilius  Juveucus, 
Aurelius  Arcadius  Charisius,  Hermogenianus,  Fragmenta  Vati- 
cana,  205;  nrmlcus  Maternus,  206;  C.  Marius  Victorinus,  207; 
JElius    Donatus,   PaUadius    Rutilius    Taurus    JEmilianus,   208; 
Itineraria,   209;   Sex.   AureUus  Victor,  Eutropias,  210;   Rufus 
Festus,   Flavlus    Sosipater    Charisius,    211;  Diomedes,    Rufius 
Festus  Avienus,  212;  D.  Magnus  Ausonius,  213;  Dictys  Cretensis, 
Dares    Phrygius,    216;    Translations    from    the    Greek,    216; 
Damasus,  217;  Q.  Aurelius  Symmachus,  217;  Drepanius  Pacatus, 
Messius   Arnisianiis,    Chirius    Fortunatianus,    219;   Ammianus 
Marcellinus,  219;  Servius  Honoratus,  220;  Tl.  Claudius  Donatus, 
221;  navius  Vegetius  Renatus,  221;  P.  Vegetius,  221;  MarceUus, 
221;  Amhrosius,  222;  Hieronymus,  223;  Turannius  Rufinus,  223; 
AureUus  Prudentius  Clemens,  224;  Proba  Faltonia,  225;  Mero- 
pius  Pontius  Anicius  PauUnus,  225;  the  Lex  Dei,  225;  Claudius 
Claudianus,  226;  AureUus  Augustinus,  228;  Sulpicius  Severus, 
230;  Q.  Julius  Hilario,  Tichonius,  Flavius  Mallius  Theodorus, 
Pelagius,    Coelestius,    Anianus,   Julianus,   231;   Macrohius  Am 
brosius  Theodosius,  231;  Vibius  Sequester,  231;  Exuperantius, 
233;    Grillius,    Severus   Sanctus   Endelechius,    Licentius,    233, 
Symphonius,  Avianus,  Martianus  CapeUa,  234. 

E.  Latin  Literature  during  the  Fifth   Century  after  Christ,   235.— 

RutiUus  Numatianus,  236;  Merobaudes,  236;  Claudius  Marius 
Victor,  Orientius,  237;  Orosius,  237;  Marius  Mercator,  Aurelius, 
Joannes  Carrianus,  Victorinus,  Philippus,  Eucherius,  Vincentius, 
Prosper,  238;  Leo  I.,  239;  The  Codex  Theodosianus  and  the 
Consultatio,  239;  C.  SolUus  ApolUnaris  Sidonius,  240;  Rusticius 
Elpidius  Donmulus,  Mamertus  Claudianus,  Faustus,  240; 
SeduUus,  241;  Auspicius,  Amoenus,  Paulinus,  Dracontius,  241; 
Avitus,  Flavius  Felix,  Coronatus,  Luxorius,  Florentinus,  Gen- 
nadius,  Victor  Vitensis,  242;  Idacius,  243;  Fabius  Planciades 
Fulgentius,  243;  Cledonius,  Pompeius,  Consentius,  Phocas. 
Kutinus,  244. 

F.  Latin  Literature  during  the  Sixth  Century  after  Christ,  244.— 

ManUus  Torquatus  Severinus  Boetius,  245;  Magnus  Felix 
Ennodius,  247;  Priscianus,  247;  Eutyches,  Asper,  Audax,  Ver- 
gilius,  249;  Magnus  AureUus  Cassiodorus,  249;  Marcellinus,  250; 
Victor,  Joannes,  251;  Jordanis  or  Jornandes,  251;  Gregorius  of 
Tours,  252;  Gildas,  Arator,  252;  Venantius  Fortanatus,  253; 
navius  Cresconius  Corippus,  253;  Gregory  I.,  254;  Leander, 
Eugippius,  Martinus,  254;  Isidoms,  255;  the  Corpus  Juris. 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATURE.* 


introductio:n". 

The  literature  of  a  nation,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  tei-m, 
comprises  everything  that  has  been  written  or  published  at 
any  period  of  its  history.  In  this  sense  it  includes  not  only 
the  poetical,  historical,  and  philosphical  productions,  but  also 
its  laws,  statutes,  decrees,  set  forms  of  prayers,  proclamations, 
etc.,  so  far  as  these  latter  are  preserved  in  inscriptions  on  stone 
or  brass  or  otherwise.  Now,  inasmuch  as  the  progress  and 
development  of  the  language  is  indissolubly  connected  with 
the  progress  and  development  of  literature,  such  documents 
are  of  no  small  importance  and  interest.  The  growth  of 
literature  always  goes  hand  in  hand  with  that  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  the  character  of  the  former  is  greatly  dependent  on 
that  of  the  latter :  for  an  uncouth  and  uncultivated  language 
can  scarcely  produce  a  literature  of  any  pretensions  to  beauty 
or  elegance,  for  language  is  far  more  than  the  mere  garment 
of  literature. 

But  in  a  narrower  sense  such  documents  can  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  constituting  a  pai-t  of  a  nation's  literature, 
which  is  generally  and  properly  limited  to  the  poetical,  his- 
torical, oratorical,  philosophical,  and  scientific  productions ; 
all  of  which  are  more  or  less  subject  to  certain  artistic  rules  of 
composition,  and  are  designed  to  amuse,  delight,  instruct,  and 
guide  the  minds  of  readers.     It  is  to  literature  in  this  sense 

We  prefer  the  name  Latin  to  Roman  in  connection  with  litera- 
ture, partly  because  the  Romans  .themselves  always  employed  that 
Sg£gLL^i^^grg-^Ji^;_  they  never  spoke  of  litterce  Romanced,  and  partly 
because  we  have  to  deal  with  a  literature  written  in  the  Latin  Ian 
guage,  which  was  not  confined  to  the  city  of  Kome. 


10 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE. 


that  we  propose,  in  the  present  manual,  mainly  to  direct  our 
attention ;  but  as  in  the  most  ancient  times  of  the  Roman 
State  we  possess  very  little  beyond  a  few  fragmentary  docu- 
ments, prayers,  laws,  etc.,  they  cannot  be  entirely  overlooked, 
formmg,  as  they  do,  the  germs  of  literature  in  its  proper 
sense.  "^    ^ 

.  I:ii^ra^iirei._more^  than  anythingjelse,  clearly  reflects  the 
^llectual,  social,  j^olitical,  Midjreligfous  conditTon^or  a 
nation;  and,  if  the  complete  literature  of  any  ancient  "people 


were  preserved,  we  should  be  enabled  to  form  as  clear  and 
distmct  an  idea  of  its  whole  life,  and  its  mode  of  acting 
and  thmking,   as  of  any  modem  nation   with   which   we 
•are  in  constant  intercourse.     But  as  literature  is  the  reflex 
and  the  natural  outcome  of  a  nation's  life,  a  knowledge  of 
Its  poHtical  and  social  history  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
tf  we  wish  fully  to  understand  and  appreciate  its  Hterature. 
We  may  indeed  form  some  idea  of  a  man  from  the  manner 
in  which  he  speaks  or  writes,  but  our  judgment  and  estimate 
of  him  by  this  means  alone  cannot  be  as  correct  and  just  as 
it  will  be  if  we  are  acquainted  with  the  history  and  circum- 
stances of  his  life.     In  like  manner  the  histoiy  of  a  nation 
affords  the  best  help  to  understand  and  appreciate  its  litera- 
ture.    Nay,  even  the  geographical  position  and  the  climate 
of  a  country  exercises_an  undeniable  influence  on  its  lan- 
guage and  literature. 

Literature  is  above  all  dependent  upon  the  art  of  writing ; 
and  before  the  invention  of  that  art  literature  is  an  impossi- 
bility. Some  kind  of  poetry,  it  is  true,  is  found  among  the 
rudest  tribes  wholly  unacquainted  with  the  art  of  writing, 
but  such  poetry  does  not  become  part  of  literature  until  the 
time  when  it  is  fixed  in  a  written  form.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  know  that  in  Greece  and  in  Italy  the  art  of  writing  was 
known  long  before  it  was  employed  for  literary  purposes; 
for  much  depends  upon  the  facility  for  obtaining  writing 
materials.  So  long  as  people  had  no  other  materials  to  wri^ 
upon  than  stone,  brass,  the  hides  of  animals,  or  linen,  litera- 
ture had  little  chance  of  being  developed. 

g'heRomans,  we  may  say  at  the  yejxoujfisjtjjwere  not  a 
peogeJtven;g;;^e£ultivation  ofTTteiature  or  the  artsTthey  "^ 
did  not  possess  that"fiexibility  and  versatility  of  mind,  nor 


INTRODUCTION. 


11 


1 

that  imaginative  power  which  distinguished  the  Greeks;  their 
virtues  consisted  more  in  manly  sobriety,  practical  energy,  and 
perseverance — qualities  which  enabled  them  to  become  great 
as  statesmen,  legislators,  and  warriors.  Art  and  literature 
possessed  no  charms  for  them,  until  a  closer  acquamtance 
with  the  Greeks  awaken^  in  them  a  spirit^of  emulatron"and 
quickened  their  zeal.  Their  religion  was~^~a~simple  and 
primitive  nature,  little  calculated  _to~fill  the  im^natTon 
with^ejbeautiful  jnyths  and  Jegends  whiclb.  constitute  the 
l^EiL^4_soul^5>f^_C>Teek  poetry :  the  E,omans^  in  fet^^ad  no 
mythology  until  they  adopted  that  of  the_  Greeks,  fee  only 
branches  of  knowledge  that  had  any  value  in  the  eyes  of  the 
early  Romans  were  the  knowledge  of  law,  the  traditions  of 
their  own  legendary  history,  and  the  power  of  speaking  in 
public.  Hence  the  first  Latin  authors  were  for  the  most  part 
foreigners  and  freedmen  struggling  with  poverty,  and  the 
forms  of  their  productions  were  such  as  might  be  expected 
to  satisfy  the  untutored  tastes  of  their  hearers  or  readers. 
Whatever  was  produced  during  the  first  500  years  after  the 
building  of  the  city  was  thoroughly  of  a  national  character, 
and  imaffected  by  any  foreign  influence. 

In  what  condition  the  language  of  the  Romans  was  at  the 
time  usually  assigned  to  the  foundation  of  the  city  (b.c.  753), 
we  have  no  means  of  judging.  We  possess,  indeed,  a  few 
prayers  or  litanies  of  a  very  early  date,  and  in  a  form  of  lan- 
guage which  it  is  difficult  to  understand,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  say  what  changes  may  have  been  introduced  in  them  by 
later  transcribers. 

It  is  only  about  513  years  after  the  building  of  the  city 
(B.C.  240)  that  we  meet  with  the  real  beg^innings  of  a  steadily 
progressive  literature  in  the  proper"'sense  of  the  term,  and 
this  was  the  time  when  Greek  literature  had  already  pass^ 

Its  best^ penoO^^  and  Jiiad  almost  losTtlie  power  of  origina 

*prbductioii. 


lii 


liiii 


FIRST   PERIOD. 

From  the  Earliest  Times  (b.c.  753)  to  the  Age  of  Livius    • 

Andronicus*  (B.C.  240). 

1.  There  are  very  few  remains  of  this  period,  and  even 
what  there  is  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  litera- 
ture in  its  proper  sense.  They  are  partly  in  verae  and  partly 
in  prose,  and  are  interesting  chiefly  in  a  philological  point  of 
view. 

A.  Metrical  Remains. 

These  are  all  composed  in  what  is  called  the  Saturnian, 
that  is,  the  ancient  Italian  metre,  a  species  of  verse  which 
remained  in  popular  use  among  the  Romans,  even  long  after 
they  had  become  familiar  with  the  metres  of  the  Greeks.  A 
Saturnian  line  is  divided  into  two  halves,  each  with  a  different 
rhythm.  Scholars  are  not  yet  agreed  as  to  the  laws  regulat- 
ing the  Saturnian  verse,  of  which  the  following  line  is  gene- 
rally quoted  as  a  specimen  : — 

DaMint  malum  MeUUi  j  Na6vio  po^tce. 

2.  The  most  ancient  remains  are  a  kind  of  religious  poetry, 
prayers,  or  litanies,  addressed  to  some  divinity.  The  follow- 
ing are  those  known  to  us : — 

a.  The  song  of  the  Salii  (carmen  Saliorum),  who  formed  a 
college  of  priests  of  the  god  Mars,  and  in  the  beginning  of 
spring  used  to  chant  a  song  or  hymn  invoking  the  god  to 
bless  the  fields :  for  Mars  was  the  sun-god  as  well  as  the  god 
of  war.  That  the  chanting  of  the  hymns  was  accompanied 
by  dancing  is  clear  from  the  name  Salii,  i.e.,  the  dancers. 
In  the  days  of  Cicero  the  language  of  those  songs  had  become 
unintelligible  to  the  Romans.  A  few  fragments  are  still 
extant. 

*  All  the  literary  remains  of  this  period  have  been  collected  by 
Egger,  Latini  Sermonis  vet.  Reliquice:  Paris,  1843;  and  the  poetical 
remains  by  W.  Corssen,  Origines  Poesis  Romance :  Berlin,  1846. 


B.C.  753-240.] 


METRICAL  REMAINS. 


13 


h.  The  song  of  the  Fratres  Arvales.  These  Ai-vales  formed 
a  brotherhood  or  college,  and  every  year,  shortly  before  the 
harvest  time,  at  the  festival  of  the  Amharvalia,  went  in  pro- 
cession round  the  fields,  chanting  a  hymn  in  honour  of  the 
goddess  Ceres.  One  of  these  hymns,  which  continued  to  be 
sung  at  the  Ambarvalia  down  to  a  late  period  of  the  empire, 
was  discovered  in  1777  at  Rome,  and  has  been  repeatedly 
published  and  commented  upon.  Its  language  is  such  that 
the  later  Romans  can  scarcely  have  understood  it.  Its  be- 
ginning runs  as  follows  : — 

Ennos,  Lases,  iuvate!    Neve  luerem^  Mars,  aim 
Incurrere  in  pleoris  !    Satur  furere,  Mannar 
Limen  salts  sta  berber!  i.e., 

En,  nos.  Lares,  juvate  f    Neve  luem,  Mars,  sinas 
Incurrere  in  plures  !    Satur  furere,  Mars  I 
Limen  salt,  sta  verbere. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  other  priestly  colleges  likewise 
had  their  ancient  songs  or  hymns,  which  were  sung  at  their 
festivals,  but  no  traces  of  them  have  come  down  to  us. 

3.  Other  productions  not  of  a  religious  character  were  : 

a.  The  Carmina  vatum,  songs  of  soothsayers  or  prophfets, 
in  the  Saturnian  metre.  Carmina  of  this  kind  existed  in 
gi-eat  numbers,  and  were  thought  to  contain  the  utterances 
of  ancient  prophets,  such  as  Cn.  Marcius  was  believed  to  have 
been.  Popular  belief  assigned  some  of  them  to  the  goddess 
Carmentis,  or  the  rustic  Fauns. 

b.  NenisB,  lamentations  or  dirges,  sung  or  chanted  at 
funerals,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  flute,  in  pmise  of  the 
deceased.  This  custom  was  observed  to  a  late  period,  though 
it  degenerated,  inasmuch  as  latterly  they  were  sung  by  women 
hired  for  the  purpose  {prceficce),  in  consequence  of  which  it 
fell  into  contempt. 

c.  Songs  sung  at  banquets,  celebrating  the  exploits  of  the 
great  men  of  the  past,  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  flute. 
Cato,  who  lived  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  after 
the  building  of  the  city,  is  reported  by  Cicero  to  have  stated 
in  his  work  entitled  OHgines,  that  long  before  his  time  this 
custom  had  existed,  but  that  it  had  died  out.  No  remnants 
of  these  poems,  or  of  the  Nenias,  have  come  down  to  us, 
unless,  as  some  have  supposed,  the  most  ancient  inscriptions 


if 


Ir 


I'i 


us 


14  HISTORY  OP   LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  I. 

ou  the  tombs  of  the  Scipios  are  regarded  as  Nenioe.  But  the 
absence  of  all  poetical  turns  or  expressions  in  these  sepulchral 
inscriptions  render  such  a  supposition  highly  improbable.* 

Rules  about  the  weather,  incantations,  and  the  like,  were 
also  handed  down  in  Saturnian  metre. 

4.  The  remaining  poetical  efforts  of  the  early  Romans  par- 
took of  the  nature  of  scenic  or  dramatic  representations. 

a,  rescennini  versus,  so  called  from  the  town  of  Fesoen- 
nium,  in  Southern  Etruria,  were  sung  originally,  by  the 
country  people  after  the  harvest,  and  on  other  festive  occa- 
sions, with  dances,  but  were  in  later  times  confined  to 
mamage  festivities.  They  appear  to  have  been  extemporised 
productions  in  which  the  country  people,  disguised  and 
masked,  assailed  one  another  in  somewhat  rude  and  coarse 
jokes  and  railleries.  So  far  as  they  were  metrical  they  were 
Saturnian  verses.  After  the  end  of  the  republic  the  Fescen- 
nines  became  part  of  the  poetical  litemture,  and  several  poets 
of  the  imperial  period,  in  their  nuptial  poems,  imitated  the 
character  of  the  ancient  Fescennines. 

b.  AtellansB,  or  AtellansB  FabulsB,  so  called  after  the  little 
Oscan  town  of  Atella,  in  Campania,  were  comical  represen- 
tations of  the  odd  doings  in  small  country  towns.  They 
were  improvised  plays,  and  became  very  popular  at  Rome, 
where  freebom  youths  with  masks  amused  themselves  with 
such  extempore  plays.  They  were  an  artless  and  natural 
kind  of  drama,  of  which  only  the  general  plan  seems  to 
have  been  previously  arranged  among  the  players.  The 
whole  consisted  simply  of  dialogues  with  songs  interspersed; 
the  jokes  were  coai-se,  and  often  of  an  obscene  kind.  The 
Atellanae  are  sometimes  called  Osci  ludi,  Oscan  plays,  from 
the  district  where  they  had  originated,  and  the  language  em- 
ployed in  them  was  provincial  or  common  rustic. 

In  the  time  of  Sulla  the  atellanae  became  regular  burlesques 
or  farces,  written  out  and  performed  by  regular  actors  as 
after-plays  {exo4ia)  to  more  serious  performances,  and  this 

'  *  Niebuhr's  theory,  which  is  now  generally  abandoned,  was  that 
the  songs  sung  at  banquets  were  a  kind  of  ballad  or  epic  poetry,  and 
formed  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  early  traditional  history 
of  Rome.  Lord  Macaulay's  beautiful  Lays  of  A  ncietU  Borne  are  some- 
tliing  like  what  Niebuhr  supposed  those  ancient  songs  to  have  been. 


B.C.  753-240.] 


REMAINS  IN  PROSE. 


15 


practice  continued  under  the  empire;  but  their  extreme 
licentiousness  had  sometimes  to  be  restrained  by  legal  en- 
actments. 

c.  Saturae  somewhat  resembled  the  Atellanae,  and  consisted 
at  fii-st  of  merry  performances  of  the  rustic  youths  of  Latium, 
in  which  they  recited  songs  or  comic  tales,  with  much  ges- 
ticulation and  dancing,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  flute. 
When,  in  B.C.  364,  regular  scenic  representations  were  intro- 
duced into  Rome,  the  Saturse  were  performed  in  temporary 
wooden  theatres  by  strolling  players.  When  subsequently 
the  artistic  drama,  in  imitation  of  that  of  the  Greeks,  became 
fashionable  in  Rome,  the  Saturae,  like  the  Atellanae  and 
Mimes  (mimi),  became  after-plays  (exodia).  The  Mimes, 
originally  dumb  shows,  became  in  the  days  of  Cicero  a  dis- 
tinct branch  of  dramatic  literature. 

Such  were  the  beginnings  of  a  national  poetical  literature 
among  the  Romans.  All,  or  most  of  them,  whether  they 
were  written  or  only  spoken  extempore,  were  composed  in 
the  Saturnian  metre.  The  fragments  which  have  come  down 
to  us  can  scarcely  be  supposed  to  have  reached  us  in  their 
original  form,  as  they  were  handed  down  by  oiul  tradition. 

>  B.  Remains  in  Prose. 

5.  Prose  was  developed  among  the  Romans,  as  among 
other  nations,  later  than  poetry,  and  we  hear  of  no  published 
work  in  prose  till  towards  the  end  of  this  period.  All  that 
we  are  told  of  during  the  previous  centuries  consisted  of  the 
barest  chronicles,  lists  of  magistrates  and  priests,  treaties 
with  neighbouring  states,  and  laws.  All  these,  with  the 
exception  of  the  laws,  which  were  in  reality  nothing  but 
ancient  customs,  must  have  been  written  down  at  the  time, 
and  the  question  naturally  presents  itself,  from  whom  did  the 
Romans  learn  the  art  of  writing,  and  at  what  time  was  it 
introduced  among  them  ?  It  is  universally  admitted  that  the 
Romans  learned  the  art  of  writing  from  the  Greeks  settled  in 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily;  the  alphabets  of  the  Latins  and 
Greeks  are  almost  identical,  but  about  the  time  of  the  intro- 
duction of  writing  among  the  Romans  opinions  are  divided. 
Some  relate  th».t  it  was  brought  into  Italy  by  the  mythical* 


i  i 


I  \m 


Hii 


16 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [pERIOD  I. 


Evander  from  Arcadia,  and  written  documents  are  mentioned 
as  old  as  the  time  of  Romulus.  But  such  statements  are  as 
mythical  as  the  stories  of  Evander  and  Romulus  themselves ; 
they  can  prove  nothing.  One  thing  is  certain,  that  the 
census  in  the  reign  of  Servius  could  not  possibly  have  been 
carried  out  "without  the  art  of  writing,  and  it  may  therefore 
be  fairly  assumed  that  writing  was  known  and  practised  at 
Rome  long  before  the  establishment  of  the  republic.  It  is 
equally  certain  that  at  first,  and  for  a  long  time  afterwards, 
it  was  not  employed  for  literary  purposes,  but  only  in  the 
aftairs  of  ordinary  life,  to  keep  brief  records  of  important 
events,  to  draw  up  treaties  with  neighbouring  states,  and  the 
like.  Such  things  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  literary  pro- 
ductions, yet  they  cannot  be  passed  over  in  a  history  of 
literature,  of  which,  in  fact,  they  form  the  first  rude  begin- 
nings. The  first  published  literary  composition  in  prose  we 
hear  of  was  a  speech  of  Appius  Claudius  the  Blind,  which, 
in  B.C.  280,  he  delivered  in  the  senate  against  Pyrrhus.  But 
let  us  see  what  was  done  before  that  time  to  preserve  the 
memory  of  the  past.     We  hear, 

6.  a.  Of  Annales  Maximi,  so  called  because  they  were 
kept  by  the  pontifex  maximus,  whence  they  are  also 
termed  simply  anrudes  pontijicum.  The  pontifex  maximus 
recorded  every  year,  on  a  white  tablet  publicly  exhibited 
in  his  own  house,  the  most  memorable  events  of  the  year, 
together  with  any  prodigies  that  had  occurred.  These  events 
were  drawn  up  in  the  briefest  possible  manner,  and  any 
one  who  wished  might  read  or  copy  them.  The  custom  of 
making  such  records  was  very  ancient,  and  was  continued 
until  about  B.C.  115,  when  they  were  found  to  be  no  longer 
necessary,  as  the  writing  of  regular  historical  works  super- 
seded the  drawing  up  of  such  simple  and  meagre  records.  A 
collection  of  them  was  then  made  in  eighty  books,  com- 
mencing with  the  origin  of  the  Roman  state.  But,  even  if 
we  could  grant  that  such  annals  had  been  kept  ever  since 
the  days  of  Romulus,  those  portions  referring  to  the  time 
previous  to  the  Gallic  conflagration  could  not  be  relied  upon, 
since  during  that  calamity,  and  several  times  afterwards,  the 
house  of  the  pontifex  had  been  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the 
annals  had  to  be  restored  and  made  up  from  memory.     We 


B.C.  753-240.] 


REMAINS   IN   PROSE. 


17 


iiXay  even  assert  that  the  annals  relating  to  the  very  earliest 
times  were  in  all  probability  pure  inventions,  or  made  up 
out  of  the  mythical  legends. 

Like  the  pontiff's,  other  priestly  colleges  also  kept  records 
of  the  persons  who  had  been  invested  with  the  priestly 
office,  and  of  their  doings.  Hence  we  hear  of  Uhri  auguraleSy 
Ubri  Saliorum,  commentarii  quindecim  virorum,  and  the  like. 
Such  chronological  lists  are  sometimes  called  Fasti. 

h.  Commentarii  Magistratuum  were  lists  of  the  magis- 
trates of  each  year,  which  had  probably  been  kept  ever  sinco 
the  establishment  of  the  republic.  The  earliest  of  them — 
some  of  which  had  been  saved  during  the  burning  of  the  city 
by  the  Gauls — were  written  on  linen,  whence  they  are  called 
Uhri  lintei.  They  were  kept  on  the  Capitoline  hill,  in  the 
temple  of  Moneta,  the  goddess  of  memory,  and  are  often 
mentioned  by  Livy  as  his  authorities. 

These,  like  other  similar  records,  were  kept  by  the  priests, 
who  made  very  extensive  use  of  the  art  of  writing,  for  they 
seem  to  have  drawn  up  treatises  partly  referring  to  the 
forms  of  worship  (the  ritual),  partly  to  what  may  be  termed 
ecclesiastical  law,  and  partly  to  occurrences  in  the  church 
and  state.  The  pontiffs  in  particular  had  under  theii-  control 
the  calendar,  the  fixing  of  the  dies  fasti  and  7ie/asti,  and 
everything  connected  with  the  arrangements  of  time.  They 
also  kept  lists  of  the  annual  chief  magistrates  (fasti  con- 
sulares)  and  of  the  triumphs  that  Avere  celebrated  (fasti 
triumphales).  Important  remnants  of  such  fasti  have  come 
down  to  us,  and  the  most  celebrated  among  them  are  frag- 
ments of  the  Fasti  Capitolini,  which  were  dug  out  in  the 
Roman  Forum,  and  contain  lists  of  the  consuls,  censors,  and 
dictators,  with  their  masters  of  the  horse,  from  the  earliest 
times  of  the  republic. 

c.  Privata  Monumenta  were  chronicles  kept  by  private 
families,  recording  events  which  had  occurred  within  the 
family,  and  also  occurrences  in  the  city.  They  appear  to  have 
been  kept  more  especially  by  the  great  patrician  families,  such 
as  that  of  the  Fabii,  whose  pride  and  vanity  often  led  them  to 
misrepresent  and  falsify  the  events  in  which  they  were  con- 
cerned. Such  families  also  kept  pedigrees  and  lists  of  their 
ancestors,  whose  images  adorned  the  atrium  of  their  houses. 


18  HISTORY  OF   LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  I. 

Underneath  these  images  there  were  generally  inscriptions 
{elocjia,  indices)  recording  the  deeds  of  the  persons  repre- 
sented. Here,  also,  truth  was  not  imfrequently  sacrificed  to 
family  vanity.  Of  a  similar  character  were  the  laudationeSf 
or  07'ationes  funehres^  which  were  delivered  by  relatives  or 
friends  at  the  burial  of  a  deceased  person. 

d.  As  regards  treaties  {foedera)  said  to  have  been  concluded 
with  other  communities  or  states  during  the  kingly  period,  we 
may  dismiss  as  fabulous  the  treaty  which  Romulus  is  reported 
to  have  concluded  with  Yeii  for  100  years;  but  a  treaty 
concluded  by  Tullus  Hostilius  with  the  Sabines,  which  was 
engraved  on  a  brass  pillar ;  a  second,  concluded  by  Servius 
Tiillius  with  the  Latins,  likewise  engraved  on  a  brass  i)illar ; 
and  a  third,  a  treaty  of  peace  between  king  Tarquin  and  the 
town  of  Gabii,  which  was  written  on  the  hide  of  the  ox 
sacrificed  on  the  occasion — all  these  may  have  been  historical. 

In  the  veiy  first  year  of  the  republic  ( B.C.  509)  the  Romans 
concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  Carthage,  of  which 
Polybius  gives  a  translation,  and  obsei-ves  that  the  language 
was  so  difierent  from  that  spoken  in  his  time  that  even  the 
most  learned  were  puzzled  to  explain  some  of  the  expressions 
occurring  in  the  original. 

Other  treaties  are  mentioned  as  having  been  concluded 
with  the  Etruscan  king  Porsena,  with  the  Latins,  and  with 
the  town  of  Ardea,  but  their  texts  have  not  come  down 
to  us. 

e.  Leges. — The  most  ancient  laws  were  not  written,  but 
vrere  handed  down  as  ancient  customs  or  usages  from  genera- 
tion to  generation.  There  existed,  indeed,  in  later  times  a 
collection  of  laws,  called  leges  re^zo?,  professing  to  be  ordinances 
and  decisions  of  the  Roman  kings ;  but  the  compilation  was 
made  at  a  late  period  by  one  Sextus  Papirius,  about  whom 
nothing  is  known,  but  from  whom  the  collection  was  called 

jiLS  Papirianum, 

We  also  hear  of  commentarii  regum,  said  to  have  been 
drawn  up  by  the  Roman  kings;  their  substance  may  have 
been  ancient,  but  their  collection  likewise  belongs  to  a  late 
period. 

Livy  tells  us  that  in  the  year  B.C.  181  certain  books  of 
King  Numa  Pompilius  were  dug  out  of  the  gi-ound,  but  that 


B.C.  753-240.] 


ORATORY. 


19 


they  were  destroyed  by  order  of  the  senate,  probably  because 
the  senate  was  convinced  that  they  were  merely  a  priestly 
fabrication  or  mystification. 

The  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  are  really  historical,  and 
of  the  highest  importance  in  the  history  of  Rome.  They 
were  drawn  up  by  the  legislative  commission  of  the  decem- 
virs, and  published  in  the  year  b,c.  450.  They  are  really 
the  first  written  laws  we  know  of  in  Roman  history.  They 
not  only  established  for  ever  the  principles  of  the  civil  law, 
together  with  the  rules  of  proceeding  in  civil  cases,  but  also 
embraced  the  criminal  and  ecclesiastical  law,  together  with 
what  we  may  term  police  regulations.  The  laws  of  the 
twelve  tables  remained  ever  after  tbe  basis  of  all  Roman 
legislation,  and  down  to  the  time  of  Cicero  boys  at  school 
used  to  learn  them  by  heart. 

The  publication  of  these  laws,  which  were "  engraved  on 
brazen  tables  accessible  to  all  citizens,  were  a  great  benefit 
to  the  plebeians,  who  in  all  legal  matters  had  until  then  been 
entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  patricians.  But  the  latter  even 
now  claimed  the  exclusive  right  of  interpreting  and  adminis- 
tering the  law,  as  well  as  the  exclusive  knowledge  of  the 
modes  of  proceeding  (legis  actiones),  and  of  the  days  on  which 
it  was  lawful  to  transact  legal  business  (dies  fasti).  These 
pretensions  of  the  haughty  patricians  were  silenced,  in  B.C. 
304,  by  the  scribe  Cn.  Flavins,  who,  with  the  sanction  and 
support  of  his  master,  Appius  Claudius,  published  the  legis 
actiones,  together  with  a  list  of  the  dies  fasti.  After  this 
time  we  hear  of  several  eminent  jurists,  who  wrote  and  pub- 
lished their  comments  on  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables. 
Many  fragments  are  still  extant.* 

f.  Oratory. — Eloquence  must  have  been  cultivated  to  a 
certain  extent  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  republic,  for 
in  a  free  state,  with  its  popular  assemblies,  it  is  a  most 
powerful  instrument  in  the  hands  of  ambitious  men  aspiring 
to  honours  and  distinction  in  the  state.  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  funeral  orations,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that,  after  the  establishment  of  the  republic,  the  voice  of 
many  a  rude  orator  was  heard  in  the  comitia,  in  the  senate, 

*  They  have  been  collected  by  Egger,  I.e.,  and  by  Gneist  in  his 
InstitxUiomim  et  Regtdanim  juris  Romani  Syntagma,  p.  xii.  fol. 


20 


niSTORY   OF  LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  I. 


' 


and  in  the  courts  of  law.  But  none  of  these  oratorical 
attempts  were  ever  published,  for  the  speeches  we  read  in 
the  early  books  of  Livy  are  entirely  his  own  compositions. 
In  the  year  B.C.  280,  Appius  Claudius  the  Blind  delivered 
in  the  senate  a  speech  against  king  Pyrrhus,  which  he 
afterwards  published,  and  which  was  still  extant  in  the 
time  of  Cicero.  Appius  Claudius  must  therefore  be  regarded 
as  the  first  Latin  writer  of  prose.  He  also  composed  poems 
(carmina)  which  seem  to  have  been  rich  in  moral  precepts, 
and  to  have  exhibited  symptoms  of  an  imitation  of  Greek 
models. 


SECOND  PERIOD. 

From  Livius  Andronicus  to  the  End  of  the  Sixth  Century 

AFTER  THE  BuiLDING   OF  THE   CiTY. 

(From  b.c.  240  to  about  b.c.  150  ) 

7.  We  are  now  entering  upon  the  period  when  the  Romans 

began  to  have  a  real  literature,  but  it  was  from  the  begin- 

ing   and   continued  always  to   be  under   the   influence  of 

IhaToTlTreecer which  prevented  tlie  development  of  a  truly 

national  literature. 


TEeTCmans  had  been  acquainted  with  the  language  and 
in^itutions  of  Greece  at  a  very  early  period,  as  is  evident 
from  a  variety  of  circumstances.  They  learned  the  art 
of  writing  from  the  Greeks;  the  constitution  ascribed  to 
Servius  Tullius  bears  unmistakable  signs  of  having  been 
influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  constitution  of  Solon ;  the 
innovations  introduced  by  the  Tarquins  in  matters  of  religion, 
and  the  story  about  the  Sibylline  books  show  that  consider- 
able attention  was  paid  to  Greek  customs.  That  in  the 
drawing  up  of  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  the  Romans 
^ere  assisted  by  the  study  oT  the  laws  ot  Athens  and  other 
^Greek  states,  is  well  attestedj^ana  it  is  well  known  that 
soon  after  a  special  place  wadset  apart  in  the  Roman  Forum 
for  the  Greeks  who  happened  to  be  staying  at  Rome  (grceco- 
stasis).  Many  Roman  families,  further,  adopted  Greek  names, 
^such  as'Sophus,  Philo,  Philippus,  etc.,  and  Roman  ambassa- 
dors sent  to  cities  in  southern  Italy  were  able  to  address  their 
audiences  in  Greek.  Merchants  and  sailors  were  no  doubt 
equally  familiar  with  Greek,  and  the  numbers  of  Greek 
slaves  had  difiiised  a  knowledge  of  their  language  even 
among  the  lower  classes  of  Roman  citizens.  This  familiarity 
with  the  language  and  customs  of  the  Greeks  must  have 
immensely  increased  during  the  first  Punic  war  (b.c.  264- 
241),  when  Roman  armies,  during  their  prolonged  stay  in 


/ 


^2  HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.         [pERIOD  II. 

SicOy,  had  opportunities  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
state  of  Greek  civilization. 

What   was   thus   begun   was   afterwards   continued   and 
increased  by  the  wars  with  Macedonia,  Antiochus,  and  the 
Greeks,  to  such  an  extent  that  men,   cherishing   the  old 
national  spirit,  and  seeing  it  gi-adually  give  way  to  foreign 
influence,  felt  and  expressed  alarm  at  the  growing  taste  for 
everything  foreign.     However,  the  current  which  had  once 
set  m  went  on  irresistibly:  the  old  Roman  simplicity  and 
frugality  disappeared  more  and  more,  and  foreign  vices  were 
introduced  with  the  foreign  civilization,  which  after  all  did 
not  penetrate  to  the  heart  and  souls  of  the  Romans,  but 
remained  in  most  cases  a  mere  outward  varnish.     After  the 
subjugation  of  the  Greeks  in  Italy,  and  still  more  after  the 
conquest  of  Greece  itself,   the  old  and  simple  religion  of 
the  Romans  was  supplanted  by  the  more  attractive  mythology 
of  the  Greeks,  and  fell  into  oblivion.     The  Greek  divinities 
were  identified  with  those  of  the  Romans,  and  the  myths  of 
the  former  were  transfeiTed  to  the  latter.     It  may  have  been  . 
about  the  same  time  that  the  numbers  of  Greeks  who  flocked 
to  Rome  from  all  parts  flattered' their  conquerors  by  im- 
pressing upon  them  the  belief  that  they  were  sprung  from 
one  of  the  heroes  of  the  Iliad,  and  thus  invented  the  story 
about  ^neas  and  his  colony  in  Italy,  a  story  which  ever  after 
remained  an  article  of  the  national  creed  among  the  Romans. 

All  educated  Romans  of  this  period  wrote   and    spoke 
Greek ;  the  earliest  Roman  historians  wrote  the  history  of 
their  country  in  Greek,  either  because  they  found  their  own 
language  too  rude  and  uncouth,  or  because  they  were  ambi-  ^ 
tious  to  exhibit  the  gi-eatness  of  their  own  nation  to  the  Greeks.  ( 

If  we  bear  these  things  in  mind  we  cannot  be  surprised  to  * 
find  that,  in  the  very  first  year  after  the  termination  of  the 
first  Punic  war,  translations  or  adaptations  of  Greek  dramas 
were  exhibited  on  the  Roman  stage,  and  were  received  with 
great  applause.  The  influence  of  Greek  literature  thus 
commenced  continued  down  to  the  latest  times,  and  the 
Romans  were  never  able  entirely  to  pmn.n(^ipiif.A  thcmjolTrog 
from  it. 

The  Latin  language  and  its  orthography,  however,  were 
fixed  once  for  all  during  this  period,  after  various  attempts 


B.C.  240-150.] 


LIVIUS  ANDRONICUS. 


23 


to  introduce  system  and  uniformity.  Every  writer  at  first 
followed  his  own  method  of  bringing  the  written  language 
into  harmony  with  the  spoken  one.  Thus,  Enmus  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  use  double  consonants,  and  L.  Attius 
indicated  the  length  of  vowels  by  doubling  them,  a  practice 
which  is  still  found  in  some  ancient  inscriptions.  The  most 
important  monument  of  this  period,  from  a  philological  point 
of  view,  is  the  Senatus  consuUum  de  Bacanahhus  of  the  year 
BC.  186,  which  was  discovered  in  1640  in  the  territory  of 
Naples,  and  is  now  preserved  in  the  library  at  Vienna;  some 
of  the  insciiptions  on  the  tombs  of  the  Scipios,  which  were 
discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome  in  1616  and  1780,  like- 
wise belong  to  this  period. 

A.  Poets  of  the  Second  Period. 
8.  Whether  the  soothsayer  or  prophet  {vates),(jn.  Mar- 
cius,  of  whom  prcecepta  and  carmina  are  mentioned,  and 
of  whom  Livy  quotes  a  prophecy  predicting  the  defeat  of 
Cannae,  B.C.  216,  belongs  to  this  period,  is  not  quite  certam; 
but  as  he  appears  to  have  possessed  a  good  knowledge  of 
Greek  myths,  it  seems  more  probable  that  he  belonged  to 
this  than  to  the  preceding  period/7^>w^i.A''»iKf^€-<-t-c  •>*'t.^«-^ . 
9   Livius  Andronicus  is  certmi>yjhe,  fir&Umportant  poet     J, 
^■^ninrpfrlod.    HewasTy  birth  a  Greek  who^  when  quite  a 
young  man,  waslSireinwisonerstrtfm'^apFure  of  Tarentum, 
in  B  c.  272.     He  seems  to  have  been  carried  to  Rome  as  a 
slave  of  Livius  Salinator,  who,  on  discovering  his  talent, 
entrusted  to  him  the  education  of  his  children,  and  gave  him 
his  freedom.     He  then  supported  himself  by  teaching  Greek 
and  Latin,  and  for  the  use  of  his  pupils  he  translated  the 
Odyssey  into  Latin  in  the  Saturnian  metre.     This  transla- 
tion remained  for  a  long  time  one  of  the  common  school  books, 
though,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  few  fragments  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  the  translation  was  awkward,  clumsy, 
and  inaccumte.  Among  his  Saturnian  lines  there  also  occurred 
a  few  hexameters,  showing  that  he  tried  occasionally  to  imitate 
the  oricrinal.     He  also  ti-anslated  plays  from  the  Greek,  and 
published  them,  and  he  himself  appeared  as  an  actor  on  the 
sta^^e.     His  plays,  fourteen  of  which  are  known  to  us  by 
their  titles,  seem  to  have  been  chiefly  taken  from  Euripides : 


^^ 


/ 


^ 


^-/^  tf^C^^^ 


/ 


2^  SISTORt  OP  UtIN  LITERATURE.        [pERIOD  II. 

Le  retained  the  lighter  metres  of  the  originals,  but.  seems 
to  have  been  fond  of  alliteration.  The  first  performance  of 
such  a  play  belongs  to  the  year  B.C.  240 ;  and  more  than 
thn-ty  years  after  this,  in  B.C.  2()Triir  waS^  commissioned 
to  write  a  poem  on  the  victory  over  Hasdnibal,  which  was 
ciianted  by  maidens.  In  recognition  of  his  merits  as  a 
poet  and  actor  a  special  place  was  assigned  to  poets  (scribes) 
and  actors  m  the  temple  of  Minerva  on  the  Aventine.  The 
ancients,  Cicero,  Horace,  and  others,  judge  very  disparagingly 
of  the  productions  of  Livius  Andronicus;  but  the  few  frag- 
ments  we  possess  do  not  enable  us  to  form  an  independent 
,iudgment.'"-  ^ 

T  l^'  ??•  ^f  V^^S  was  a  native  of  Campania,  but  probably  a 
Latin,  though  not  a  Roman  citizen,  as  in  this  case  he  could 
hardly  have  been  treated  by  his  enemies  with  the  severity 
he  had  to  submit  to.  He  produced  his  first  plays  on  the 
Koman  stage  m  B.C.  235.  He  had  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
first  Punic  war  As  a  poet  he  followed,  on  the  whole, 
the  example  of  Livius  Andronicus,  but  preferred  comedy  to 
tragedy;  and  as  a  Campanian  he  seems  to  have  been  of  a 
somewhat  fiery  and  independent  disposition,  and  unconcerned 
as  to  whom  he  might  offend  by  the  sallies  of  his  wit.  He 
thiis  drew  upon  himself  the  enmity  of  the  proud  Roman 
th^l^e^''  especially  of  the  Metelli,  whom  he  offended  by 

"Fato  Metelli  Bomaljiunt  consiiles." 
In  consequence  of  this  he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  after- 
wards  sent  into  exile.     He  died  at  Utica,  in  Africa,  about 
B.C.  Ijy,  or,  according  to  Cicero,  somewhat  earlier. 

^  .JZ'Z  ^''^^  ^  .""?  animated  by  a  truly  national  spirit, 
^  and  introduced  into  dramatic  literature  the  kind  of  comedy 

^  inXhThp'vT'i  ^'''''i'^^''^^  ^^Uml^.ihat  is,  comedies 
mwh^he  chief  characters  were  Romans,  in  short  national 
jharactersA  a^  opposed  tojalliaicB,  i.e.,  comedies  of  which  the 
-^ai^ctei.  were  Greek,  alfpiTcK  were  either  translations  or 
adaptations  from  the  Greek.  This  national  spirit  of  the  poet 
gained  for  his  works  a  popularity  which  lasted  several  cen- 
turies, and  which,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  few  fragments 


B.C.  240-150] 


t.   MACCItJS   PLAUTtJg. 


25 


that  have  reached  our  time,  was  well  desei'ved.  We  know 
the  titles  of  about  seven  tragedies  and  of  about  thiiiiy-six 
comedies  that  are  ascribed  to  him. 

In  his  later  years,  Nsevius  wrote  an  epic  poem  on  the  first 
Punic  war,  in  the  old  Saturnian  metre,  which  was  subse- 
quently divided  by  grammarians  into  seven  books ;  the  fii-st 
two  contained  the  early  history  of  Rome,  and  the  remaining 
five  gave  an  account  of  the  Punic  war.  The  style  of  the 
work  was  plain  and  simple,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  our 
rhyming  chronicles.* 

11.  T.  Maccius  Plautus  was  born  at  Sassina,  a  small  town 
in  Umbria,  about  B.C.  254,  of  free  parents,  but  in  humble 
circumstances.  He  afterwards  went  to  Rome  where  he 
became  connected  with  the  stage,  but  embarking  in  commer- 
cial speculation  he  lost  all  he  had  saved,  and  worked  for  a 
time  in  a  flour  mill.  Even  during  this  period  he  is  said  to 
have  wi'itten  several  comedies,  an  occupation  to  which  he 
subsequently  devoted  himself  exclusively,  and  with  the 
greatest  success.  He  chiefly  adapted  Greek  plays  (palliatce) 
to  the  Roman  stage,  especially  those  of  what  is  called  the 
new  comedy,  including  such  productions  as  those  of  Diphilos, 
Philemon,  and  Menander.  He  died  at  Rome  in  B.C.  184. 
Plautus  was  exclusively  a  writer  of  comedies,  and  is  said  by 
some  to  have  composed  no  less  than  1 30  plays,  of  which  twenty 
are  still  preserved,  though  some  are  not  quite  complete.  "We 
know  the  titles  of  a  great  many  more,  but  even  in  antiquity 
many  of  them  were  regarded  as  spurious.  Owing  to  Plautus' 
popularity  some  of  them  may  have  been  written  by  imitators 
of  the  style  of  Plautus,  or  he  may  have  revised  and  corrected 
the  plays  of  others  who  lived  at  the  time,  for  we  know  that 
comedy  was  then  very  popular,  and  that  many  tried  to  win 
laurels  in  this  department  of  literature. 

The  twenty  comedies  of  Plautus  still  extant  are  : — 

1.  Amphitrito,  the  only  one  of  his  comedies  which  treats 
of  a  mythological  subject. 

2.  Asinaria,  a  farcical  play,  full  of  excellent  comic  effect 
and  lively  characterization. 

3.  Aulvlaria  represents  the  character  of  a  miser  in  the 

♦  The  fragments  have  been  collected  by  0.  Eibbeck,  Tragkorum 
Zat.  Reliquim,  p.  5,  foil.:  and  also  by  E.  KluBsmann:  Jena,  1843. 


26 


HISTORY  OF  LATIIT  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  It. 


I 


most  varied  circumstances  and  in  the  most  eflfective  manner. 
The  last  part  of  the  play  is  unfortunately  lost. 

4.  Captiviy  nether  a  sentimental  play,  with  beautiful 
scenes,  and  enlivened  by  the  character  of  a  parasite. 

5.  Curculioy  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  parasite  who 
is  the  chief  figure  of  the  play. 

6.  Casinaf  a  somewhat  coarse  comedy,  of  which  the  con- 
clusion is  wanting.  An  old  amorous  man  is  excellently 
portrayed. 

7.  Cistellaria,  one  half  of  which  is  lost;  its  character  is 
very  like  that  of  the 

8.  EpidicuSj  which,  however,  is  richer  in  humour  and 
more  complicate  in  its  plot. 

9.  Bacchides,  one  of  Plautus*  best  plays,  both  in  its  plot 
and  in  the  delineation  of  character ;  the  first  scenes  of  it  are 
lost. 

10.  Mostellariaj  a  ghost  story  abounding  in  well-drawn 
characters. 

11.  Mencechmij  perhaps  the  most  successful  among  all  his 
plays,  shows  the  amusing  mistakes  arising  from  the  close 
resemblance  of  twin  brothers. 

12.  Miles  GloriosuSy  a  somewhat  caricatured  picture  of  a 
bragging  soldier. 

13.  MercatoT  represents  scenes  similar  to  those  of  the 
Castna. 

14.  PseudohiSy  an  amusing  play,  tolembly  correct  in  tone 
and  fomi. 

15.  PcenuluSj  not  without  great  defects,  but  celebrated  on 
account  of  the  introduction  of  a  Carthaginian  who  speaks 
his  own,  that  is,  the  Phoenician  language. 

1 6.  Fersa,  an  interesting  play,  in  which  the  chief  charac- 
ters are  slaves. 

17.  Rudens  is  more  attractive  by  meny  and  witty  scenes 
than  by  its  design  as  a  whole. 

18.  StichuSy  a  very  close  imitation  of  a  play  of  Menander. 

19.  Trinummus  describes  ftimily  scenes,  but  without  female 
characters ;  it  is  very  temperate  in  its  plan  and  colouring. 

20.  Truculentus  is  full  of  extravagant  humour;  a  cour- 
tesan plays  the  principal  part. 

So  far  as  we  know  these  plays  were  first  performed  at 


B.C.  240-150.] 


T.   MACCIUS   PLAUTUS. 


27 


Rome  between  the  years  B.C.  200  and  189,  but  of  some  the 
time  is  unknown,  and  they  may  have  been  performed  either 
before  or  after  that  period.* 

12.  Plautus  has  all  the  excellencies  and  faults  that  may  be 
expected  from  a  popular  poet  of  his  time  and  country.  He 
took,  indeed,  his  subjects  from  the  new  comedy  of  the  Greeks, 
but  he  makes  his  characters  speak  and  act  as  true  Romans. 
Thus  Alcumena  in  the  Amphitruo  is  a  beautiful  picture  of  a 
Roman  matron,  drawn  simply  and  from  nature,  and  Amphi- 
truo himself  is  a  true  Roman  warrior.  He  further  introduced 
his  own  wit  and  humour  wherever  he  could,  independently 
of  his  originals,  because  he  knew  well  that  everything 
reflecting  Roman  nationality  would  have  a  more  powerful 
effect  than  anything  foreign.  His  wit  is  often  coarse,  but  in 
keeping  with  the  prevailing  taste  of  his  age ;  the  characters, 
it  must  be  remembered,  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the 
lower  orders,  and  the  poet  had  to  make  them  use  the  lan- 
guage of  their  class.  Plautus  himself  is  said  to  have  preferred 
the  Epidicus,  the  PseudSlus,  and  the  Truculentus.  But 
there  is  scarcely  one  of  his  plays  which,  compared  with  the 
others,  does  not  present  novel  and  striking  features.  His 
main  strength  lies  in  the  liveliness  and  animation  of  his 
dialogues ;  he  makes  no  allusions  to  the  personal  affairs  of 
any  individual  among  his  contempoi'aries,  but  often  criticises 
very  sharply  the  prevailing  tastes  and  tendencies  of  his  age. 

In  regard  to  his  style  and  language,  we  can  still  discern 
the  influence  of  the  old  Satumian  verse,  for  he  is  fond  of 
alliteration,  neglects  the  length  of  syllables  by  position,  and 
is  careless  about  the  hiatus.  But  with  all  this,  his  language 
had  the  gi'eatest  charms  for  the  ancients  themselves,  who 
likened  it  to  the  language  of  the  Muses,  though  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  its  old-fashioned  character  ceased  to  be  relished 
by  men  of  more  refined  culture.  In  ready  wit  and  play- 
fulness Plautus  has  never  been  sui-passed,  and  his  plays 
maintained  their  place  on  the  Roman  stage  long  after  his 
death;  most  of  the  prologues  we  now  have  were  composed 
for  performances  during  the  last  century  of  the  Rei)ublic. 
Ancient  grammarians  and  critics  vied  with  each  other  in  ex- 

*  The  best  editions  of  the  comedies  of  Plautus  are  those  by  F. 
Ritschl  and  Fleckeisen,  both  published  at  Leipzig. 


28 


HISTORY   OF   LATIIf   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  II. 


plainiDg  and  commenting  on  the  plays  of  Plautus  no  less  than 
has  been  the  case  in  modem  times,  for  his  comedies  are  of 
the  highest  importance  in  the  history  of  the  Latin  language. 

13.  Q.  Ennius  was  bom  in  b.c.  239,  one  year  after  Livius 
Andronicus  had  brought  out  his  first  play,  at  Rudi^e,  in  the 
country  of  the  Peucetii,  in  Calabria,  where  both  Greek  and 
Oscan  were  spoken.  During  the  second  Punic  war,  when 
M.  Porcius  Cato  was  prgetor  in  Sardinia,  Ennius  served 
under  him  as  a  soldier;  when  Cato  retumed  to  Rome, 
in  B.C.  204,  he  took  Ennius  with  him,  who  thenceforth 
appears  to  have  lived  in  a  small  house  on  the  Aventine, 
attended  by  a  single  maid-servant,  and  supporting  himself 
by  teaching  Greek  and  translating  Greek  plays  for  the 
Roman  stage.  By  this  means  he  gained  the  friendship  of 
some  of  the  Roman  nobility,  and  especially  of  the  elder 
Scipio  Africanus.  In  B.C.  189  he  accompanied  the  consul, 
M.  Fulvius  Nobilior,  on  his  campaign  against  the  ^tolians, 
and  afterwards  celebrated  his  victory  over  them  in  a  poem. 
A  few  years  later  the  son  of  Fulvius  Nobilior,  having  been 
appointed  triumvir  colonicB  deducendce,  procured  for  Ennius 
the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen,  and  assigned  to  him  a  piece  of 
land  at  Potentia,  in  Picenum.  Ennius  suffered  much  from 
gout,  and  died  in  B.C.  169.  He  was  buried  in  the  tomb  of 
the  Scipios,  where  he  was  represented  in  a  marble  statue.     - 

Ennius  spoke  three  languages,  Greek,  Oscan,  and  Latin, 
whence  he  nsed  to  say  that  he  had  tria  corda  (three  minds), 
and  notwithstanding  his  suffering  from  gout,  he  used  to 
drink  a  good  deal  of  wine  to  help  his  poetical  inspiration. 

He  was,  more  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  the  real  founder 
of  Latin  literature,  and  may  in  more  than  one  respect  be  com- 
pared with  Dante :  both  displayed  the  same  vigour  and  energy 
of  language  and  had  the  same  power  of  imagination.  Ennius 
stirred  up  the  spirit  of  the  Romans  in  many  ways  by  intro- 
ducing among  them  whatever  of  Greek  art  and  taste  he  had 
himself  acquired.  The  introduction  of  the  hexameter  into 
Latin  poetry  is  his  work,  and  no  ancient  poet  has  displayed 
his  powers  in  such  a  variety  of  ways  as  Ennius,  and  in  most 
cases  with  perfect  success.  He  enjoyed  the  admiration  of 
his  countrymen  during  his  lifetime,  and  down  to  the  latest 
times  of  the  empire  all  recognised  his  extraordinary  powers, 


B.C.  240-150.] 


Q.   ENNIUS. 


29 


and  looked  upon  him  as  the  Roman  Homer.  The  refined 
gentlemen  of  the  age  of  Augustus,  it  is  true,  did  not  quite 
relish  his  poetry,  but  such  defects  as  they  censured  occur 
even  more  in  the  subsequent  writers  of  comedy  and  tragedy, 
and  they  after  all  refer  rather  to  mere  matters  of  form  than 
to  the  substance  and  spirit  of  his  works.  Even  Horace 
admits  his  great  merits ;  and,  at  a  later  period,  when  people 
had  become  tii-ed  of  the  polished  but  empty  productions  of 
the  time,  as  in  the  days  of  Hadrian,  they  gladly  returned  to 
the  invigorating  and  genuine  intellectual  food  provided  by 
Ennius,  through  whom  Latin  literature  had  entered  upon  an 
entirely  new  life. 

14.  All  his  works  were  either  original  compositions  or 
imitations  and  translations  of  Greek  authors ',  but  his  great 
mind  shone  more  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  His 
works  were : — 

1.  AmialeSf  his  greatest  and  probably  his  latest  produc- 
tion, an  epic  poem  in  eighteen  books,  in  which  he  re- 
lated, in  hexameter  verse,  the  traditional  history  of  Rome 
in  chronological  order,  from  the  arrival  of  ^neas  in  Italy 
down  to  his  own  time.  Ennius  himself  meant  this  work 
to  be  for  the  Romans  what  Homer  was  for  the  Greeks,  and 
the  Romans  really  did  look  upon  it  in  that  light.  Even 
the  fragments  we  have  of  it  (about  600  verses  or  parts  of 
verses)  contain  passages  of  the  highest  poetical  merit.  These 
Annales  were  read,  both  in  private  and  in  public,  down  to 
a  very  late  period  of  the  empire. 

2.  Tragedies^  chiefly  free  translations  of  the  tragedies 
of  Euripides,  whose  philosophical  reasoning  and  rhetorical 
manner  seem  to  have  had  greater  attraction  for  him  than 
-^schylus  or  Sophocles.  We  know  the  titles  of  about 
twenty-six;  they  were  still  read  and  admired  in  the  time 
of  Cicero,  but  we  now  possess  only  a  few  fragments.  He 
also  wrote  one  or  two  prsetextatse;  but  in  comedy  he  seems 
to  have  been  less  successful,  and  we  have  only  a  veiy  few 
fragments  of  two  or  three. 

3.  Saturce,  a  collection  of  various  poems  in  different 
metres,  apparently  divided  into  six  books.  One  of  these 
poems  was  entitled  Scipio.  The  saturse  of  Ennius  must  have 
been  very  different  fronj  those  which  we  have  mentioned 


30 


HISTORY   OP   LATIN    LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  II. 


before,  and  which  were  of  a  scenic  character.  Ennius  is 
alluded  to  by  Horace  as  the  inventor  of  saturse  or  satires,  so 
that  they  must  have  been  something  like  those  of  Lucilius 
and  Horace  himself. 

Besides  these  works,  epigi'ams  also  are  mentioned,  and  a 
ti-anslation  of  the  prose  work  of  Euemeros,  the  precursor  of 
modem  rationalists,  who  attempted  to  explain  the  myths  of 
the  Greek  gods  as  misunderstood  natural  occurrences.* 

16.  M.  Pacuvius,  a  son  of  Ennius'  sister,  was  born  in  b.c. 
220  at  Tarentum,  but  afterwards  accompanied  his  uncle  to 
Eome,  where  he  acquired  great  reputation  as  a  painter,  and 
still  more  as  a  writer  of  tragedies.  One  of  his  paintings  in 
the  temple  of  Hercules,  in  the  Foiaim  Boarium,  was  highly 
esteemed  as  late  as  the  time  of  Plinv.  In  Rome  he  became 
the  friend  of  Laelius  and  Scipio,  and  occupied  himself  chiefly, 
like  his  predecessors,  with  translating  Greek  plays,  an  occu- 
pation which  he  continued  up  to  a  very  advanced  period 
of  life,  for  at  the  age  of  eighty  he  competed  with  Attius, 
who  was  fifty  years  yoimger  than  himself.  After  this  his 
declining  health  induced  him  to  return  to  his  native  city, 
where  he  died  at  the  age  of  nearly  ninety. 

Pacuvius,  both  in  his  lifetime  and  for  centuries  after- 
wards, enjoyed  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  gi'eatest  tragic 
writei-s.  He  translated  Greek  tragedies,  chiefly  those  of 
Sophocles,  with  more  or  less  freedom.  Only  one  of  them, 
the  Antiopa^  was  an  adaptation  of  a  play  of  Euripides. 
We  know  the  titles  of  twelve  of  his  tragedies,  a  few  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  original  compositions,  and  only 
one,  entitled  PauluSj  dealt  with  a  Eoman  subject.  It 
was  formerly  believed  that  Pacuvius  also  wrote  comedies, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  this  opinion.  As 
regards  his  style,  the  ancients  pmise  his  ubertas,  probably 
alluding  to  his  rich  and  well  rounded  sentences,  for  Cicero 
calls  his  verses  ornati  and  elaborati.  From  the  fragments 
which  have  been  preserved  we  can  still  perceive  that  he 
had  to  contend  with  the  hai-shness  and  inflexibility  of  the 
language,  and  had  recouree  to  bold  compounds  and  archaic" 
forms  to  give  tragic  pathos  to  his  vei-ses.     This,  of  coui-se, 

*  The  best  collection  and  arrangement  of  the  fragments  of  Ennius 
is  that  by  J.  Vahlen,  Ennianon  Poesis  Jidifiiiice:  Leipzig',  1S54. 


B.C.  240-150.] 


CiECILIUS   STATIUS. 


31 


displeased  not  only  the  critics  of  the  Augustan  age,  but  is 
blamed  even  by  Cicero  and  Quintilian.* 

16.  CsBCilius  Statius,  a  contemporary  of  Pacuvius,  was 
bom  about  B.C.  219,  in  the  country  of  the  Insubres,  a  Keltic 
tribe  in  the  north  of  Italy.  He  came  to  Rome,  probably  as 
a  prisoner  of  war  and  a  slave,  about  B.C.  200.  After  his 
emancipation  he  became  the  friend  of  Ennius,  whom  he 
survived  only  by  a  few  years,  for  he  died  in  B.C.  166. 
How  he  got  his  education  and  his  knowledge  of  Greek  is  un- 
known, but  he  must  have  been  well  acquainted  with  Greek 
litemture,  as  he  translated  many  pieces  of  the  new  Attic 
comedy,  especially  of  Menander,  adopting  at  first  the  style 
and  manner  of  Plautus ;  but  later  on  he  followed  the  hel- 
enising  tendency,  and  became  more  regular,  without,  how- 
ever, sacrificing  his  own  innate  force  and  vigour.  His 
productions  met  with  great  applause,  and  Cicero,  who  often 
quotes  his  verses,  says  that  he  was  perhaps  the  greatest 
of  all  comic  poets.  Unfortunately,  no  complete  play  of  his 
has  come  down  to  us;  but  from  the  fragments  we  have  it 
is  clear  that  his  language,  though  still  harsh,  was  less  archaic 
than  that  of  Pacuvius.  Cicero,  who  otherwise  valued  him 
veiy  highly,  calls  him  malus  auctor  Latinitatis;  and  his 
language  may  indeed  not  have  been  quite  correct,  as  by  his 
birth  he  was  neither  a  Greek  nor  a  Roman.  His  fragments 
are  rather  numerous,  and  we  know  the  titles  of  at  least  forty 
of  his  comedies,  most  of  which  were  palliatce.  They  have 
been  collected  in  O.  Ribbeck's  Comicorum  Latinorum  Be- 
UquicBj  p.  29,  foil. 

17.  There  are  a  few  other  writers  of  2yciUiatce  belonging  to 
this  period,  but  very  little  is  known  about  them.  One  of 
them  is  called  Trabea.  of  whom  we  have  only  two  small 
fragments  quoted  by  Cicero;  another  is  Atilius,  who  acquired 
the  nickname  of  Misogynos,  and  whose  language  is  called 
hai'd  ;  a  thii-d,  Licinius  Imbrex,  of  whom  a  comedy  entitled 
Necera  is  mentioned ;  and  lastly,  Luscius  Lavinius,  who  is 
vehemently  attacked   in   nearly  all   the   prologues   to   the 

-comedies  of  Terence-     His  comedies  are  described  as  such 
faithful  tmnslations  of  the  Greek  that  he  retained  even  such 

*  The  fragments  of  Pacuvius  are  collected  in  A.  Eibbock's  Tragi- 
CQriini  Jjat.  Hdiijuice,  p.  62,  foil. :  Leipzig,  1S52, 


32 


HISTORY   OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  II, 


fi 


passages  as  were  likely  to  give  offence  to  the  Romans  (see 
O.  Ribbeck,  as  above,  p.  71). 

18.  P.  Terentius  was  born  at  Carthage  (whence  he  is 
called  Afer^  i.e.,  an  African),  and  was  brought  to  Rome  at 
an  early  age  as  a  slave,  having  either  been  bought  or  cap- 
tured. His  master,  a  senator  Terentius  Lucanus,  had  him 
educated  as  a  free-born  youth,  and  afterwards  gave  him  his 
freedom.  It  was  perhaps  owing  to  his  African  origin  that 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  younger  Scipio  Africanus, 
Lselius,  and  other  illustrious  Romans.  This  connection  and 
friendship  gave  rise  to  the  gossiping  report,  got  up  by 
jealous  rivals,  that  Scipio  or  Lselius  was  the  real  author  of 
the  comedies  bearing  the  name  of  Terence.  After  having 
brought  out  six  plays,  the  last  of  which  was  the  Adelphi,  he 
went  to  Greece,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  study,  and  on 
his  way  back  he  died,  B.C.  159,  having  scarcely  completed 
his  twenty-fifth  year.  The  place  of  his  death  is  uncertain, 
for  according  to  some  he  perished  at  sea,  where  his  ship  was 
wrecked;  while,  according  to  others,  he  died  on  land  in 
Arcadia,  of  a  disease  aggravated  by  vexation  at  the  loss  by 
shipwreck  of  a  large  number  of  translations  of  Greek  comedies. 

19.  The  six  comedies  which  Terence  composed  and  brought 
out  upon  the  Roman  stage  are  still  extant,  as  well  as  their 
most  important  ancient  commentators,  Donatus  and  Eugra- 
phius.  We  also  possess  the  didascalia  of  the  six  plays,  that 
is,  the  official  accounts  of  the  time  and  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  were  performed  at  Rome.  The  six  plays 
are : — 

1.  Andria,  first  performed  at  the  ludi  Megalenses  in  B.C. 
166  ;  it  is  an  adaptation  of  a  comedy  of  Menander,  with  ad- 
ditions from  another  of  the  same  author.  The  sedile  who  had 
the  superintendence  of  the  games,  when  Terence  offered  his 
Andriaj  desired  him  to  read  it  to  Csecilius  Statins  and  obtain 
his  opinion  upon  it.  Csecilius  expressed  great  admiration  of 
the  work,  and  it  was  performed.  The  conclusion  of  the  play 
exists  in  two  different  redactions. 

2.  Eunuchus,  likewise  made  up  of  two  plays  of  Menan- 
der, was  first  performed  at  the  Megalensian  games  in  B.C. 
161 ;  it  is  one  gf  Terence's  best  plays,  and  met  with  great 
applause. 


B.C.  240-150.] 


P.    TERENTIUS. 


33 


3.  HautwitimoTumenos,  i.e.,  the  self-torturer,  is  an  imi- 
tation of  a  play  of  Menander  of  the  same  name.  It  represehts 
an  intrigue  of  a  somewhat  eccentric  kind,  and  is  rather  tame- 
It  was  first  performed  at  the  ludi  Momani  in  B.C.  161.  ' 

4.  Fhormioj  an  imitation  of  a  Greek  play  by  Apollodorus 
of  Karystos.  Its  title  is  the  name  of  the  parasite  who  acts  a 
chief  part  in  it.  The  action  is  exciting,  the  characters  varied 
and  well  drawn,  and  the  whole  is  very  lively  and  amusing. 
It  was  performed  in  the  same  year  as  the  Eunuchus  at  the 
ludi  Romani. 

5.  Hecym,  i.e.,  the  mother-in-law,  an  imitation  of  a  comedy 
of  Apollodorus,  was  performed  in  B.C.  165.  This  play  con- 
tains scarcely  any  action,  but  consists  entirely  of  clever 
delineations  of  character.  It  was  the  most  unsuccessful  of 
Terence's  comedies,  for  its  performance  was  twice  interrupted, 
and  it  was  only  during  a  third  attempt  that  the  audience 
allowed  it  to  be  gone  through. 

6.  Adelphi,  or  the  Brothers,  was  an  imitation  of  a  play  of 
the  same  name  by  Menander,  but  in  it  he  introduced  a  scene 
from  Diphilos.  It  was  performed  in  B.C.  160  for  the  second 
time,  and  is  no  doubt  the  most  successful  of  all  Terence's 
comedies  :  its  plot  is  simple  but  well  devised,  the  characters 
are  finely  sustained,  and  the  whole  is  spirited  and  animated.* 

20.  All  the  comedies  of  Terence  are  palliatse,  and  the  fact 
that  he  often  combined  two  plays  into  one,  or  introduced  in 
the  one  scenes  from  another,  seems  to  show  that  he  was 
wanting  in  inventive  power :  if  he  had  possessed  more  genius 
he  would  have  made  additions,  where  wanted,  from  his  own 
resources.  Still,  he  combined  the  parts  of  his  originals  so 
skilfully  that,  without  the  aid  of  Donatus,  we  should  be 
unable  to  discover  them.  Terence  makes  use  of  his  prologues 
chiefly  to  defend  himself  against  the  attacks  of  others.  The 
manner  in  which  he  used  his  originals  shows  that  he  pos- 
sessed but  small  independence  of  mind,  and  that  he  followed 
them  almost  slavishly.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why,  in 
the  canon  of  the  authors  of  palliatae,  only  the  sixth  place  was 

*  The  best  editions  of  Terence  are  those  of  R.  Bentley:  Cambridge 
and  London,  1726;  and  of  Westerhovius,  Hag.  Comit.,  1726,  con- 
taining the  commentaries  of  Donatus  and  Eugraphius.  The  best  text 
IS  that  of  A.  Fleckeisen :  Leipzig,  1857. 


34 


HISTORY   OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  11. 


assigned  to  him.  What  distinguishes  his  works  is  their 
correctness  and  elegance;  his  characters  have  neither  the 
freshness  nor  the  strength  and  animation  of  those  of  Plautus, 
but  at  the  same  time  have  none  of  the  coarseness  of 
Plautus.  In  short,  Terence  composed  his  comedies  in  a  state 
of  perfect  dependence  on  his  originals,  and  according  to  the 
strict  rules  of  art  which  he  found  to  be  observed  in  them ; 
and  his  object  appears  to  have  been  to  please  the  higher  class 
of  Roman  society,  rather  than  the  great  body  of  the  people. 
His  language  is  everywhere  smooth  and  elegant,  and  such  as 
we  may  suppose  to  have  been  employed  in  ordinary  life  by 
the  better  class  of  Romans.  His  versification  is  more  correct 
and  regular  than  that  of  Plautus,  but  less  varied  and  spirited. 

21.  Titinius  is  the  first  who  confined  himself  to  the  com- 
position of  togatse.  He  belonged  to  a  respectable  plebeian 
family,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Terence,  whom  he  seems  to 
have  survived.  We  know  the  titles  of  fifteen  of  his  comedies, 
and  from  the  fragments,  collected  by  O.  Ribbeck  (p.  115, 
foil.),  we  see  that  their  character  was  somewhat  coarse,  such 
as  would  please  a  popular  audience  of  the  time.  His  fresh- 
ness and  animation  remind  us  of  Plautus,  but  his  delinea- 
tion of  character  is  more  regular  and  methodical,  resembling 
that  of  Terence. 

22.  Turpilius  was  likewise  a  contemporary  of  Terence, 
but  long  survived  him.  He  wrote  only  palliatse,  and  pre- 
pared Greek  comedies  of  the  middle  and  new  schools  for  the 
Roman  stage.  So  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  fragments 
of  his  plays,  his  tone  was  more  animated  than  that  of  either 
Csecilius  or  Terence,  whom  he  resembles  in  his  versification; 
but  his  language  is  richer  in  the  popular  element.  We 
know  the  titles  of  thirteen  of  his  comedies,  the  majority  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  imitations  of  Menander.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  Turpilius  ceased  writing  comedies  at 
an  early  period,  as  in  his  time  palliatae  appear  to  have 
lost  their  popularity  with  Roman  audiences.  (See  Ribbeck, 
as  above,  p.  73,  foil.) 

23.  Lucius  Attius,  also  written  Accius,  was  bom  in  B.C. 
170  at  Pisaurum,  where,  in  B.C.  184,  a  Roman  colony  had 
been  established;  his  parents  were  freedmen  (libertini). 
There  is  a  stoiy  that  when  Pacuvius  had  withdrawn  to 


B.C.  240-150.1 


LUCIUS  ATTIUS. 


35 


Tarentum,  Attius,  who  was  a  little  younger,  undertook  a 
journey  to  Asia.  On  passing  through  Tarentum  he  was 
invited  by  the  older  poet,  and  while  staying  with  him  for 
several  days  read  to  him  his  tragedy  of  Atreus.  Pacuvius, 
on  having  heard  it,  remarked  that  what  he  had  written  was 
indeed  sonorous  and  grand,  but  that  it  nevertheless  appeared 
to  him  a  little  too  hard  and  severe.  "You  are  right," 
replied  Attius,  "  and  I  do  not  regret  it ;  for  I  hope  that  my 
future  productions  will  be  better."  He  lived  on  intimate 
terms  with  D.  Junius  Brutus  (consul  in  B.C.  138),  who 
adorned  the  entrances  to  temples  and  monuments  with  verses 
of  his  Attius.  We  still  know  the  titles  of  at  least  thirty-seven 
tragedies,  most  of  which  were  modifications  of  Greek  originals, 
but  two  of  them  seem  to  have  been  original  and  indepen- 
dent works,  based  upon  scenes  from  the  Iliad.  His  selection 
of  subjects  shows  that  he  well  understood  the  nature  of 
tragedy,  and  he  may  without  hesitation  be  regarded  as  the 
most  talented  among  the  Roman  tragic  writers.  He  took 
for  his  models  especially  -^schylus  and  Sophocles.  The  tone 
perceptible  in  the  remains  of  his  works  shows  that  the  high 
estimation  of  the  ancients  was  well  deserved,  for  they  con- 
tain evidence  of  gi-eat  animation  and  pathos.  He  did  not 
confine  himself  to  imitating  Greek  originals,  but  also  wrote 
original  dramas  on  Roman  subjects  (prcetextce)^  such  as  the 
self-sacrifice  of  the  younger  P.  Decius  Mus  and  the  story 
of  Brutus  the  tyrannicide. 

Attius  also  composed  other  works  in  verse — 
1.  Didascalica,  a  sort  of  history  of  Greek  and  Roman 
poetry,  especially  of  the  drama,  in  trochaic  tetrameters. 

^  2.  Pragmaticon  libri,  in  the  same  metre,  referred  to  the 
history  of  art. 

3.  Farergaj  treating  probably  of  agricultural  subjects, 
and, 

4.  AmialeSy  in  at  least  three  books  and  in  the  tragic  metre. 
Of  their  nature  we  know  nothing,  except  that  some  mytho- 
logical subjects  were  treated  of  in  them. 

He  appears  to  have  bestowed  gi-eat  attention  upon  the 
forms  of  the  language,  for  he  used  frequent  alliteration, 
spelt  aggelus  instead  of  angelus,  rejected  the  use  of  y 
and  Zy  indicated  the  length  of  vowels  by  doubling  them, 


36  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  II. 

and    preferred    Greek   inflectional   terminations  to    Latin 

ones.*  II- 

24.  There  are  a  few  other  writers  of  palliatse  belonging 
to  this  period,  such  as  Juventius,  Valerius,  A.  Fulvius 
Labeo,  and  Popillius  Lsenas,  but  very  little  is  known  of 
them.  The  few  fragments  of  their  works  which  have  come 
down  to  us  are  collected  in  0.  Ribbeck's  Comicorum  Latin- 
oruju  Beliquice. 

B.  Prose  Writers  of  the  Second  Period. 
It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the  earliest  Roman 
historians  composed  their  works  in  Greek.     The  most  im- 
poi-tant  among  them  are  G.  Fabius  Pictor  and  L.  Cincius 
Alimentus. 

25.  G.  Fabius  Pictor  flourished  about  the  time  of  the 
second  Punic  war.  During  the  inroad  of  the  Gauls  into 
Italy,  in  B.C.  22o,  he  is  said  to  have  taken  part  in  the 
war  against  them.  After  the  battle  of  Cannae,  in  b.c.  216, 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Delphi,  to  consult  the 
oracle.  This  is  almost  all  we  know  of  the  circumstances 
of  his  life.  His  great  work  was  a  history  of  Home  from 
the  time  of  ^neas  down  to  his  own  day ;  as  it  contained 
the  history  of  the  whole  of  the  second  Punic  war,  the 
work  must  have  been  written  after  its  termination  in  B.C. 
201.  It  is  frequently  refen-ed  to  as  an  authority  by 
Polybius,  Dionysius,  Livy,  and  others ;  his  veracity  is  not 
doubted,  except  that  he  is  censured  for  having  allowed 
himself  occasionally  to  be  led  astray  by  his  patriotism. 
As  passages  of  the  work  are  frequently  quoted  in  Latin,  it 
is  probable  that  a  Latin  translation  of  it  was  made  at  a  later 
time ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  translation  was  made 
by  the  author  himself,  or  by  some  other  member  of  the  Fabia 
gens;  perhaps  by  Fabius  Maximus  Servilianus,  who  was 
consul  in  B.C.  142. t 

26.  Cincius  Alimentus,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Fabius 

♦  The  fragments  of  Attius  are  collected  in  0.  Ribbeck's  Tragico- 
rum  Latinorum  ReUqui(B,  p.  114,  foil.  „     ^   , .     *    rr  > 

t  The  fragments,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  are  collected  in  A.  Krause  s 
Vitce  et  Fragmenta  Veterum  Historicorum  Eomanorum,  p.  38,  folL: 
Berlin,  1833. 


t.c.  240-150.] 


ii.  poticius  CATd. 


sr 


Pictor,  was  prsetor  in  B.C.  210,  when  he  restored  peace  in 
Sicily  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Carthaginians.  He  him- 
self stated  in  his  work  that  he  had  been  taken  prisoner  by 
Hannibal,  perhaps  in  B.C.  208.  He,  like  Fabius,  wrote  the 
annals  of  Rome  in  Greek,  which  are  often  referred  to  by 
later  writers,  and  of  which  a  second  book  is  mentioned.  He 
treated  the  early  period  very  briefly,  but  in  dealing  with  the 
history  of  his  own  time  he  was  more  minute. 

Much  confusion  and  uncertainty  have  been  caused  by  the 
fact  that  there  was  another  person  of  the  same  name,  who 
lived  at  a  much  later  time ;  for  under  the  name  of  Cincius 
Alimentus  are  mentioned  works  De  Fastis^  De  Comitiis,  Be 
Consulum  Fotestate,  Be  Officio  Jurisconsult^  Mystagogica^ 
Be  Re  Militari,  and  Be  Verbis  Priscis ;  but  all  these  works 
are  manifestly  the  productions  of  a  learned  jurist  who  lived 
at  a  much  later  period,  perhaps  a  contemporary  of  Cicero,  who 
bore  the  same  name  as  the  annalist.  (See  Krause,  as  above, 
p.  63,  foil.) 

27.  Besides  these  two  there  are  a  few  others  who  wrote 
historical  works  in  Greek,  such  as — 

1.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  a  son  of  the  elder  Africanus,  whom 
Cicero  mentions  as  the  author  of  some  Greek  history,  most 
agreeably  written. 

2.  C.  Acilius  Glabrio,  a  Roman  senator  of  high  rank, 
wrote  in  Greek  the  annals  of  Rome,  from  its  foundation 
down  to  his  own  time,  i.e.,  about  B.C.  194.  These  annals 
were  afterwards  translated  into  Latin  by  one  Claudius.  Of 
both  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  only  a  few  fragments  are 
preserved.     (See  Krause,  p.  84,  foil.) 

28.  M.  Porcius  Cato. — Amid  the  hellenising  tendencies 
which  threatened  to  stifle  all  attempts  to  create  a  national 
literature,  there  arose  M.  Porcius  Cato,  the  most  determined 
champion  of  all  that  was  national  in  the  life  and  literature 
of  the  Romans.  He  is  generally  called  Cato  the  Censor  or 
Cato  Censorius,  to  distinguish  him  from  Cato  Uticensis,  the 
contemporary  of  Caesar.  He  belonged  tO:ihe  plebeian  gens 
Porcia,  and  was  bom  at  Tusculum  in  B.C.  23'4;  he  obtained  the 
qusestorship  in  B.C.  204,  the  sedileship  in  B.C.  199,  the  prae- 
torship  in  the  following  year,  the  consulship  in  B.C.  195,  and 
the  censorship,  for  which  he  is  most  celebi-ated,  in  B.C.  184. 


38 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  It, 


He  lived  to  a  great  old  age,  and  died  in  his  ninetieth  year, 
B.C.  149.^ 

Cato  was  a  most  able  and  uncompromising  adversary  of 
the  .proud  aristocracy;  he  clearly  saw  what  he  wanted,  and 
pursued  his  objects  sometimes  with  resolute  straightforward- 
ness and  sometimes  with  cunning ;  he  was  of  a  combative 
nature  and  full  of  natural  wit :  in  short,  he  was  the  true 
type  of  an  ancient  Roman.  With  all  this  he  was  exceed- 
ingly vain,  liking  to  put  his  own  acts  in  the  most  favourable 
light,  and  not  free  from  mean  selfishness.  In  politics  he 
was  less  far-sighted  than  his  patrician  opponents,  but  no  one 
possessed  more  genuine  patriotism  than  he.  Although  in 
his  earlier  years  he  professed  little  respect  for  writers  of 
any  kind,  yet  he  became  himself  in  the  end  a  more  volumin- 
ous writer  than  any  of  his  contemporaries,  and  the  real 
creator  of  Latin  prose.  He  was,  as  Quintilian  says,  at  once 
a  great  general,  a  philosopher,  an  orator,  a  historian,  a 
lawyer,  and  well  versed  in  husbandry.  He  was  the  first 
Koman  who  composed  and  published  works  in  prose,  and 
those  not  a  few.  It  is  singular  that  he,  the  ardent  upholder 
of  all  that  was  national,  brought  to  Rome  Ennius,  the  very 
man  who  established  the  taste  for  Greek  literature  among 
the  Romans. 

29.  Cato  took  a  lively  interest  in  all  public  affairs  down 
to  the  latest  period  of  his  life ;  and  being  indefatigable  in 
his  opposition  to  the  hellenising  tendencies  of  the  time,  he 
had  ample  opportunities  of  displaying  his  talent  as  an  orator. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  his  litei'ary  productions  : — 

1.  Orations. — If  we  except  the  one  famous  speech  of 
Appius  Claudius  against  Pyrrhus,  and  a  few  fimeral  lauda- 
tions, Cato's  were  the  first  speeches  that  were  written  out 
and  published.  Cicero  knew  upwards  of  150  of  his  speeches, 
and  we  still  know  of  about  eighty,  partly  from  fragments 
still  extant  and  partly  from  the  mention  of  the  occasions  on 
which  they  were  delivered.  These  eighty  were  partly  judi- 
cial speeches  and  partly  political,  being  delivered  either  in 
the  senate  or  before  the  assembled  people.  They  were  read 
and  studied  down  to  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
What  remains  of  them  shows  a  great  natural  eloquence, 
always  suited  to  the  occasion  and   abounding  in  playful 


t.c.  240-150;1 


M.  PORCIUS  CATO. 


30 


mirth,  mingled  with  profound  earnestness,  self-laudation,  and 

biting  sarcasm.* 

2.  Origines.—Th\s.  is  the  title  of  Cato's  most  important 
work,  in  seven  books ;  the  first  contained  the  history  of  the 
Roman  kings,  the  second  and  third  an  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  towns  and  cities  of  Italy,  the  fourth  the  first  Punic 
war,  the  fifth  the  second  Punic  war,  and  the  remaining 
books  were  devoted  to  the  subsequent  wars  down  to  the 
year  B.C.  149.  In  his  account  of  the  wars  (probably  those 
described  in  the  later  books)  he  did  not  name  the  generals 
engaged  in  them,  but  only  related  the  occurrences.  The 
tit?e  Origines  probably  applied  only  to  the  first  three  books, 
which  may  have  been  published  first,  and  the  title  was  re- 
tained when  the  other  books  were  added  at  a  later  time. 
The  work,  which  is  sometimes  referred  to  under  the  title 
Historice  or  Annates,  also  contained  some  of  the  author's 
speeches.  The  fragments  have  been  collected  by  Krause  in 
the  work  already  referred  to,  p.  98,  foil. 

3.  Proecepta  ad  Filium  was  the  title  of  a  work  which  Cato 
wrote  for  the  instruction  of  his  son.  His  rich  and  varied 
experiences  enabled  him  to  advise  and  instruct  his  son  in 
such  matters  as  agriculture,  the  laws  of  health  (in  which  he 
was  opposed  to  the  doctrines  of  Greek  physicians),  oratory, 
military  and  legal  affairs.  The  work  was  intended  to  be  a 
guide  to  a  young  Roman  in  the  various  relations  of  life.  It 
IS,  however,  not  quite  certain  whether  all  the  subjects  men- 
tioned were  treated  of  in  the  Frcecepta,  or  whether  some  of 
them  were  not  discussed  in  separate  treatises.  With  a 
similar  object  he  addressed. to  his  son  various  letters  and  a 
work  in  verse  (carmen). 

4.  Facete  Dicta  was  a  collection  of  witty  and  pointed  say- 
ings of  others.  Soon  after  his  death  a  similar  collection  of 
his  own  witty  and  wise  sayings  was  made,  partly  from  his 
writings  and  partly  from  the  recollection  of  contemporaries. 
This  collection  retained  its  popularity  for  many  centuries. 

5.  Be  Be  Fustica,  i.e.,  on  agriculture,  but  mainly  on  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  olive.  This  is  the  only 
one  of  Cato's  works  that  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  com- 

*  The  fragments  of  his  speeches  are  collected  in  H.  Meyer's  Orato- 
rum  Bomanorujn  Fragmenta,  p.  11,  folL 


40 


HISTORY  Oe*  Latin  literature,      [period  ih 


plete  form.  It  is  properly  a  manual  of  instruction  about 
the  management  of  an  estate  near  Casinum  and  Venafi-um, 
belonging  to  one  L.  Manlius.  The  first  part  contains  sys- 
tematic instruction  on  vines  and  olive  plantations,  but  this 
is  followed  by  an  irregular  mass  of  rules  about  the  manage- 
ment of  domestic  affaii-s,  some  of  which  are  very  amusing, 
about  making  purchases,  about  rents,  sacrifices,  and  the  cure 
of  diseases.  The  style  of  the  book  is  brief  and  aphoristic, 
but  the  language  has  scarcely  the  archaic  character  which 
we  should  expect  in  a  work  of  Cato's,  whence  it  is  generally 
believed  that  its  present  form  is  a  more  recent  or  modernised 
edition  of  the  original.* 

30.  As  the  example  of  publishing  speeches  had  been  set 
by  Cato,  it  was  followed  by  others.  The  most  distinguished 
orators  among  his  contempcrai-ies,  some  of  whom  published 
their  speeches,  are — Fabius  MaximiLS  Cunctator,  whose  fune- 
ral oration  on  hia  son  was  greatly  admired  by  Cicero;  Q, 
Ccecilius  MeteUuSj  who  published  a  funeral  oration  on  his 
father;  M.  Cornelius  Cethegus ;  P.  Licmius  Crasms;  the 
elder  Scipio  Jfricanus;  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Gracchi; 
L.  Papirius,  L.  Paulus,  G.  Sxdpkius  GaUus,  and  C  Tihius; 
but  no  specimens  of  their  oratory  are  now  extant. 

Along  with  oratory  the  study  of  the  law  also  began  to  be 
zealously  cultivated  during  this  period.  Among  the  eminent 
jurists  we  may  mention — 1.  Adius  Sextus,  the  fii-st  author  of 
a  book  on  law,  entitled  Tripertitay  which,  among  other 
matters,  contained  a  commentaiy  on  the  laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables.  2.  ill.  Porcius  Cato,  a  son  of  Cato  Censorius,  who 
wrote  a  work,  De  Juris  DiscijMua,  in  at  least  fifteen  books. 
3.  M.  Fulvius  Nobiliory  the  aristocratic  oi)ponent  of  the  elder 
Cato,  published  Fasti  which  wcro  set  up  in  tho  templo  of 
Hercules. 

31.  History  continued  to  be  written  in  Greek  by  some 
down  to  the  time  of  Sulla,  who  himself  is  said  to  have  written 
memoii-s  of  his  life  in  Greek.  Among  tho  historians  of  this 
class  we  have  to  mention  :— 

1.  C.  Acilius,  who  wi'ote  a  history  of  Rome  in  Greek, 

apparently  from  the  foundation  of  the  city,  down  at  least 

to  the  year  B.C.  194.     The  work  was  afterwaids  translated 

*  The  work  ia  printed  in  M.  Gesner's  Scriptores  Bd  JRusticcs,  VoL  L 


fi.C.' ^40-150.1 


P.  SCI  PIG  NASIOA* 


41 


into  Latin  and  continued  by  Claudius  Quadngcmus  down  to 
the  tmie  of  the  civil  wars. 

2.  A  Postumius  Albinus  likewise  wrote  a  history  of 
Home,  beginning  apparently  with  the  earHest  times. 

6.  P.  Scipio  Nasica  appears  to  have  written  in  Greek 
mSTccW    ""^''''''^"'"'^  *^^^^  *^®  ^*^  ^i<^^  K"ig  Perseus  of 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  the  freedman,  Sp.  Car- 
vihus,  was  one  of  the  first  who  established  a  pubUc  school 
at  Rome,  about  b.c.  230.  He  is  said  to  have  intro- 
diiced  the  letter  ^^  and  to  have  rejected  the  letter  z.  The 
alphabet  he  thus  arranged  contained  twenty-one  letters. 


Mi  i 


'^^ 


THIRD  PERIOD. 


Seventh  Century  after  the  Foundation  of  the  City 
(from  about  B.C.  150  to  about  B.C.  80.) 

32.  During  this  period  Latin  literature  reached  its  full 
development;   what   the   sixth   century   had   prepared   the 
seventh  matured  and  completed,   ^arthage  was  destroyed^ 
and  Greecfi_subdllfid;  -crowds  of  Greeks  flocked  to  Home  and 
"Helped  to  bring  about  the  final  victory  of  Greek  manners  and 
modes  of  thinking  over   the   ancient  national   life  of  the 
Romans:  Grcecia  captaferum  victorem  cepit,  as  Horace  says. 
Unfortunately,  the  Romans  were  not  in  a  condition  to  judge 
what  was  really  deserving  to  be  imitated  in  Greek  life  and 
literature,  and  oftener  preferredthe  bad  to  the  goQ;^     The 
family  of  the  Scipios,  where  men  li"ke  Panaetius  and  J?olybius 
were  always  welcome  guests,  gathered  round  it  the  noblest 
spirits  of  the  time,  who  were  uncontaminated  by  the  avarice 
and  the  other  vices  which  were  then  beginning  to  draw  all 
classes  into  their  vortex.    But  this  very  separation  of  intellec- 
tual and  cultivated  society  from  the  rest  of  the  people  gave  it 
the  character  of  aristocratic  exclusiveness,  and  prevented  its 
exercising  any  great  influence  on  the  great  body  of  contem- 
poraries.    Demoralization  accordingly  went  on  increasing, 
and  showed  its  baneful  results  in  the  wars  against  Numantia 
and  Jugurtha.     The  rude  Marius  could  make  it  a  boast  that 
he  did  not  understand  Greek,  which  in  his  time  was  so  gene- 
rally known  that  Greek  plays  were  frequently  performed  at 
Rome.     Roman  writers,  acknowledging  the  superiority  of 
Greek  literature,  endeavoured  to  imitate  its  correctness  and 
elegance,  and  only  very  few,  such  as  Lucilius,  disdained  to 
compote  with  the  Greeks  in  the  smoothness  and  elegance  of 
their  compositions. 

Ever  since  the  year  B.C.  145  complete  Greek  theatres  were 
annually  erected  at  Rome  of  wood,  which,  when  the  season 
was  over,  could  be  taken  down.     The  first  permanent  stone 


15.C.  150-80.] 


U  AfEANIUS. 


4S 


theatre  was  built  by  Pompey  in  B.C.  55.  In  poetical  litera- 
ture the  composition  of  dramas  still  predominated;  but  as 
the  palliatge  were  rapidly  supplanted  by  togatse,  attellange, 
and  mimes,  it  is  clear  that  popular  amusements  assumed  more 
and  more  the  character  of  low  and  vulgar  farces.  All  other 
branches  of  poetry  nearly  died  out ;  but  prose  literature,  in 
the  form  of  history,  oratory,  and  jurisprudence,  made  extra- 
ordinary progress.  The  Latin  language,  on  the  whole, 
retained  the  character  impressed  upon  it  by  Ennius,  at  least 
so  far  as  literature  and  the  speech  of  the  educated  classes 
were  concerned  :  for  the  language  of  common  life  continued 
its  own  ancient  ways,  and  the  Saturnian  verse  kept  its 
ground  in  the  popular  amusements  intended  for  the  masses 
of  the  people. 

A.  Poets  op  the  Third  Period 

33.  The  few  poets  of  this  period  are  : — 

1.  T.  Quinctius  Atta,  of  whose  life  nothing  is  known, 
except  that  he  died  in  B.C.  78,  and  was  buried  on  the  road  to 
Prseneste,  near  the  second  milestone.  Atta  and  Afranius  are 
the  most  important  writers  of  togatse ;  and  the  subjects  of 
Atta's  plays,  of  which  we  know  the  titles  of  eleven,  were 
all  distinctly  Roman.  The  few  remaining  fragments  are 
marked  by  a  strong  national  colouring.  The  ancients  praise 
him  for  the  consistency  with  which  he  drew  his  characters, 
especially  those  of  females.  His  plays  continued  to  be  per- 
formed as  late  as  the  time  of  Augustus.  Atta  is  also  men- 
tioned as  the  author  of  epigrams  in  dactylic  metre.* 

2.  L.  Afranius,  a  more  important  writer  of  togatae  even 
than  Atta,  was  born  about  b.c.  144,  so  that  the  most 
active  period  of  his  life  must  have  been  about  B.C.  100. 
He  is  remarkable  not  only  on  account  of  the  number  of  his 
productions,  but  also  on  account  of  their  aii/Lstic  merit. 
We  know  upwards  of  forty  titles  of  his  comedies;  they 
maintained  their  place  on  the  Roman  stage  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Nero,  and  were  read  even  down  to  a  much  later 
period.  His  enthusiastic  admirers  regarded  him  as  equal  to 
Menander. 

*  The  few  fragments  of  his  comedies  are  collected  in  0.  Ribbeck's 
Comkorum  Lat.  Reliqidce,  p.  137,  foil. 


44 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN   LiTfeRATURE.         [PERIOD  lit 


AfmniiTS  was  deeply  imbued  with  Greek  culture,  but 
apparently  also  with  its  depraved  morality.  He  did  indeed 
take  Menander  for  his  model  and  wrote  in  his  spirit,  but 
confined  himself  to  Roman  subjects,  chiefly  representing  the 
life  of  the  middle  classes  :  his  comedies  were,  in  fact,  pictures 
of  the  family  life  of  the  Roman  middle  classes.  His  language, 
as  we  see  from  his  numerous  fragments,  combined  the  vigour 
and  freshness  of  Plautus  with  the  correctness  and  elegance 
of  Terence.* 

3.  C.  Lucilius  was  bom,  in  b.c.  148,  at  Suessa  Aurunca 
in  Campania,  and  belonged  to  a  family  of  equestrian  rank; 
a  sister  of  his  was  grandmother  of  Pompey.  While  yet  very 
young  he  accompanied  the  younger  Scipio  Africanus  in  the 
war  against  Numantia,  and  afterwards  lived  with  him  and 
Laelius  on  terms  of  intimacy.  Such  society  must  have  had 
great  influence  upon  the  intellectual  development  of  Lucilius. 
He  lived  at  Rome  in  the  house  built  for  the  son  of  King 
Antiochus,  who  was  kept  there  as  a  hostage.  He  was  well 
versed  in  the  literatures  of  both  Rome  and  Greece,  and  took 
a  lively  interest  in  everything  that  was  going  on  around 
him.  That  he  had  many  enemies  as  well  as  friends  is  clear 
from  the  fragments  of  his  poems  which  have  come  down 
to  us;  but  he  maintained  his  independent  spirit  amid  the 
busy  turmoil  and  selfishness  of  his  time.  He  died  at  Naples 
in  B.C.  103,  at  the  age  of  forty-six,  and  was  honoured  with  a 
funeral  at  the  public  expense. 

The  only  work  which  Lucilius  appears  to  have  written 
was  a  collection  of  SaturcB  or  Satirce,  in  thirty  books,  most  of 
which  were  composed  in  hexameters,  but  some  also  in  iambic 
and  trochaic  metres.  In  these  satires  he  expressed  with 
great  freedom  his  thoughts  upon  everything  he  saw,  heard, 
or  read,  exercising  his  criticism  upon  politics,  manners,  and 
literature.  He  did  this  with  a  boldness  which  neither  before 
nor  after  him  any  satirist  has  ventured  to  imitate,  for  he 
assailed  many  of  his  contemporaries  by  name,  and  did  not 
scruple  to  attack  the  whole  city.  We  know  that  Ennius 
had  written  saturre  before  him,  but  as  Lucilius  is  called  the 
inventor  of  satire,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  his  satires 

*  For  the  fragments  of  his  plays,  see  0.  Ribbeck's  Comic.  Lat. 
Jieliquice,  p.  140,  foil. 


B.C.  150-80.] 


PROSE  WRITERS. 


45 


were  of  an  entirely  different  character  from  those  of  Ennius. 
The  fragments  we  have  of  the  satires  of  Lucilius  show  a 
highly  cultivated  mind,  a  keen  intellect,  moral  earnestness, 
a  cheerful  disposition,  and  ready  wit ;  but  great  indifierence 
as  to  style  and  versification,  defects  which  are  more  than 
once  referred  to  by  Horace,  who  otherwise  recognises  in  him 
a  great  master.  Lucilius  seems  to  have  composed  his  satires 
very  hurriedly  and  in  an  offhand  manner;  but  notwithstand- 
ing their  formal  defects  they  were  read  and  enjoyed  by  many 
even  in  the  time  of  Augustus ;  and  at  a  later  period  some 
preferred  him  to  Horace,  whom  he  certainly  surpassed  in 
force  and  originality.* 

34.  The  remaining  poets  of  this  period  are  few,  and  chiefly 
authors  of  erotic  epigrams  of  little  value,  in  imitation  of  the 
Alexandrian  Greeks.  The  most  noteworthy  are  Pompilius, 
Valerius  ^dituus  (of  whom  two  epigrams  are  still  extant), 
Porcius  Licinius  (some  of  whose  epigrams  have  been  pre- 
served by  A.  Gellius  and  Suetonius),  and  Q.  Lutatius 
Catulus  (who  was  consul  in  B.C.  102).  Their  remains  are 
collected  in  Weichert's  Poetarum  Lat.  Eeliquice,  p.  348,  foil. 

The  poets,  C.  Valerius,  of  Sora,  hence  called  Soranus,  and 
C.  Julius  CSBSar  Strabo,  who  died  in  b.c.  87,  wrote  tragedies. 
Towards  the  end  of  this  period  two  poets  acquired  reputation 
by  transforming  the  ancient  atellanae  into  a  regular  branch 
of  comic  literature.  These  were  L.  Pomponius  of  Bononia 
and  Novius.  The  former,  who  seems  to  have  been  the  more 
original  and  certainly  the  more  productive,  lived  about  B.C. 
90;  we  have  fragments  of  sixty-five  of  his  atellanse,  while 
of  those  of  Novius  we  have  only  forty-three.  The  remains 
of  both  show  that  they  often  indulged  in  coarse  and  even 
obscene  language  to  gratify  the  popular  taste  of  the  times.! 

B.  Prose  Writers  of  the  Third  Period. 

35.  During  the  first  twenty  years  of  this  period  there  was 
no  lack  of  good  orators,  the  most  distinguished  among  whom 
were  the  younger  Scipio  Africanus  and  his  brother  Fabius 

*  His  numerous  fragments  have  been  collected  by  0.  D.  Gerlach : 
Zurich,  1845. 

t  Their  remains  are  collected  in  0.  Ribbeck's  Comic.  Lat.  Eeliquice, 
p.  191,  foil. 


46  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  III. 

^milianus,  Sulpicius  Galba,  M.  Lepidus,  Furius  Philus, 
and  Q.  Metellus  Macedonicus.  Orations  of  some  of  them 
were  read  and  admired  by  Cicero,  and  one  by  Q.  Metellus 
was  recited  by  Augustus  in  the  senate. 

During  the  period  of  the  Gracchi,  from  b.c.  133  to  B.C. 
119,  oratory  had  the  most  splendid  opportunities  of  display- 
ing its  powers  in  the  violent  party  struggles,  but  no  one 
distinguished  himself  more  than  the  younger  Gracchus,  the 
few  specimens  of  whose  eloquence  still  extant  fully  justify  the 
admii-ation  they  excited  at  the  time.  But  he  was  not  the 
only  orator;  both  among  his  friends  and  among  his  foes  there 
were  men  of  unusual  powers  who  made  their  voices  heard.* 

36.  The  historians  of  the  first  twenty  years  of  this  period 
still  followed  the  example  of  the  earlier  annalists,  but  they 
wrote  in  Latin,  as  Cato  had  done.  It  is  astonishing  to  find 
that  at  the  very  time  when  a  Polybius  wrote,  Rome  had  only 
her  annalists  or  dry  chroniclers.  The  earliest  among  them 
were — 

1.  Cassius  Hemina,  who  wrote  a  work  in  at  least  five 
books,  sometimes  called  Historke  and  sometimes  Annates.  He 
seems  to  have  given  a  minute  account  of  the  early  history  of 
Rome.  The  fourth  book  treated  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
The  fragments  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the  other  historians,  are 
collected  in  the  work  of  Krause,  already  referred  to. 

2.  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Prugi  was  a  more  important  writer 
than  Hemina,  but,  like  him,  he  began  with  the  earliest  times 
and  continued  the  history  in  seven  books  down  to  his  own 
day.  He  was  censor  in  B.C.  120,  and  one  of  the  opponents 
of  the  Gracchi.  His  work  is  pi-aised  for  its  trustworthiness, 
and  the  frequent  quotations  from  it  by  Livy  and  Dionysius 
show  its  author  to  have  been  a  simple-minded  and  honest 
character.  His  style,  however,  is  not  favourably  judged  of 
by  Cicero.     He  also  appeai-s  to  have  published  orations. 

3.  Q.  Pabius  Maximus  Servilianus,  an  eminent  jurist,  and 
consul  in  B.C.  142,  is  also  mentioned  as  a  writer  of  annals,  of 
which  the  first  book  is  quoted. 

4.  Cn.  Gellius  wrote  annales,  of  which  a  fifteenth  book 

*  Whatever  fragments  of  the  orators  of  those  times  remain  have 
been  collected    by  Meyer,    Oratorum  Bom.   Fragmenta :   Zurich, 


B.C.  150-80.] 


L.    C^LIUS   ANTIPATER. 


47 


is  mentioned,  and  which  seems  to  have  been  a  rather  volu- 
minous work. 

37.  While  the  writing  of  history  was  thus  still  in  its 
infancy,  the  study  of  the  law  and  its  exposition  were  making 
vast  progress,  no  doubt  the  result  of  the  many  legal  questions 
which  arose  at  the  time.  The  most  eminent  jurists  of  the 
time  were  M'.  Manilius,  M.  Junius  Brutus,  and  especially 
P.  Mucius  Scaevola,  who  is  supposed  to  have  done  away  with 
the  ancient  custom,  according  to  which  the  pontifex  maximus 
kept  the  public  annals,  because  the  practice  of  private  per- 
sons writing  history  had  rendered  that  part  of  the  pontifl's 
duty  superfluous.  But  in  order  to  preserve  those  ancient 
records,  he  is  said  to  have  collected  them  in  the  form  of  a 
book.  It  may  be  noticed  that  Scsevola  and  P.  Licinius 
Crassus,  who  is  praised  as  the  greatest  lawyer  of  his  day, 
sided  with  the  Gracchi. 

38.  The  rapid  progress  which  every  branch  of  practical 
knowledge  made  at  the  time  could  not  fail  to  have  its  efiects 
also  on  the  writing  of  history,  and  there  now  appear  several 
men  of  learning  who  composed  works  on  the  history  of  their 
own  times.     Such  men  were — 

1.  Cajus  Pannius,  a  disciple  of  the  Greek  philosopher 
Pansetius.  He  accompanied  Tib.  Gracchus  in  the  third 
Punic  war,  and  was  qusestor  in  B.C.  139.  He  composed  an 
historical  work,  which,  as  Cicero  says,  was  not  wiitten 
without  elegance,  and  which  is  praised  for  its  truthfulness. 
It  consisted  of  at  least  eight  books,  and  seems  to  have  treated 
only  of  contemporary  events,  for  which  reason  its  loss  is  to 
be  regretted  all  the  more.  On  the  advice  of  Cicero,  M. 
Brutus  made  an  abridgement  of  it. 

2.  L.  Caelius  Antipater,  a  contemporary  of  the  Gracchi, 
was  no  doubt  the  ablest  historian  of  his  time.  His  work 
consisted  of  at  least  seven  books,  and  must  have  been  pub- 
lished after  the  death  of  the  younger  Gracchus.  Its  main 
subject  seems  to  have  been  the  second  Punic  war,  and  he 
appears  to  have  touched  upon  many  constitutional  questions. 
He  is  said  to  have  paid  more  attention  to  rhetoric  than  to 
law,  a  charge  which  is  borne  out  by  the  remnants  of  the 
work  we  still  possess.  Livy  seems  to  have  made  great  use 
of  it  in  his  account  of  the  second  Punic  war. 


48  HISTORY  OP   LATIN  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IIL 

3.  P.  Sempronius  Asellio  served  as  a  tribune  of  the  sol- 
diers under  Scipio  in  the  war  against  Numantia.  He  wrote 
a  work  on  the  history  of  his  own  time  which  consisted  of  at 
least  fourteen  books,  the  fifth  of  which  contained  an  account 
of  the  death  of  Tib.  Gracchus.  From  an  opinion  of  his  quoted 
by  A.  Gellius  it  appeai-s  that  he  had  a  far  more  correct  view 
of  what  history  ought  to  be  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 

4.  C.  Sempronius  Tuditanus,  consul  in  b.c.  129,  was  a 
man  of  a  highly  cultivated  mind,  and  an  elegant  writer.  His 
historical  work  seems  to  have  embraced  the  early  history  as 
well  as  that  of  his  own  time.  He  is  also  mentioned  as  the 
author  oi  Lihri  Magistratuum  and  other  works. 

5.  Junius  Gracchanus,  an  intimate  friend  of  C.  Gracchus, 
whence  he  obtained  the  name  of  Gracchanus.  He  was  an 
antiquarian  rather  than  an  historian,  inasmuch  as  he  directed 
his  attention  chiefly  to  constitutional  questions.  He  wrote 
a  work,  De  Magistratibus,  addressed  to  his  friend  Pomponius, 
the  father  of  Cicero's  friend  Atticus.  The  fragments  of  this 
work  show  that  he  endeavoured  to  combine  historical  in- 
vestigations with  the  explanation  of  words. 

Other  inquirers  about  the  same  time  devoted  themselves 
to  the  elucidation  of  the  early  literature  of  their  country. 
Thus  Lampadio  wrote  a  commentary  on  N»vius'  poem  on 
the  Punic  war,  and  Q.  Vargunteius  one  on  the  annals  of 
Ennius.  Grammatical  studies  had  a  representative  in  Z. 
Actitis.  Greek  philosophy,  especially  that  of  the  Stoics* 
found  warm  supporters  among  men  of  the  highest  i-ank, 
such  as  Q.  Tubero,  the  augur  Q.  Scaevola,  and  C.  Blossiua 
of  Cumae,  the  faithful  friend  of  Tib.  Gracchus. 

39.  The  period  from  the  violent  suppression  of  the  Gracchi 
and  their  party  till  about  b.c.  100,  is  the  time  during  which 
C.  Lucilius  and  L.  Afi-anius  displayed  their  greatest  literary 
activity.  Other  contemporaiy  writers  were  P.  Rutilius 
Rufus,  consul  in  b.c.  105,  and  Q.  Lutatius  Catulus,  consul 
in  B.C.  102.  The  former,  besides  works  on  law,  wrote  an 
account  of  his  own  life  while  he  was  living  in  exile  at 
Smyrna.  A  fifth  book  is  mentioned;  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  work,  originally  composed  in  Latin,  was  afterwards 
also  published  in  Greek.  Lutatius  Catulus,  besides  the 
ei-otic  epigrams  already  mentioned,  likewise  wrote  his  auto- 


B.a  150-80.]  I*.    iSLIUS    PRJICONINUS   STILO. 


49 


biography,  and  a  work  entitled  Communis  Historia^  in  at  least 
four  books,  which,  to  judge  from  the  fragments  we  still 
possess,  seems  to  have  had  a  Euhemeristic  tendency. 

Grammatical  studies  had  a  most  able  representative  in  L. 
.ffilius  Praeconinus  Stilo,  of  Lanuvium,  a  man  of  equestrian 
rank,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  Roman  philologist. 
He  is  often  called  simply  JEMxxs^  and  lived  on  intimate  terms 
with  some  of  the  most  influential  optimates.  He  was  a  fol- 
lower of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  and  the  first  who  lectured  to 
a  circle  of  friends  on  Latin  literature  and  oratory,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  regular  study  of  the  Latin  language  by  com- 
menting on  its  most  ancient  monuments.  Varro,  who  was 
one  of  his  pupils,  afterwards  followed  in  his  footsteps.  Among 
the  works  he  wrote  we  may  notice  commentaries  on  the 
Carmina  Saliorum  and  on  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  He 
was  an  ardent  admirer  of  Plautus. 

40.  The  twenty  years  from  B.C.  100  to  B.C.  80,  a  period 
full  of  political  excitement,  produced  men  of  the  greatest 
eminence  both  in  oratory  and  jurisprudence,  two  branches 
which  always  went  hand  in  hand  among  the  Romans.  His- 
torical composition  inclined  towards  a  rhetorical  character, 
and  was  sometimes  employed  for  party  purposes. 

As  regards  poetry,  it  has  been  already  remarked  that  the 
old  atellanse  were  i*aised  to  the  rank  of  dramatic  compositions 
for  the  amusement  of  the  people.  Cn.  Matius  translated  the 
Iliad  into  Latin  and  composed  mimiamhi^  that  is,  farces  in 
iambics.  Hostius  and  Q.  Furius  are  mentioned  as  epic  poets, 
and  LaBvius  made  a  collection  of  erotic  poems  called  Erolo- 
paignioii  Libri,  written  apparently  in  a  somewhat  lascivious 
tone,  and  in  the  melic  metres  of  the  Greeks.  The  higher 
kind  of  poetry  was  not  cultivated,  and  the  only  one  who  is 
reporied  to  have  written  tragedies  is  L.  Julius  Ccesar. 

Orntory  and  jurisprudence  continued  to  be  cultivated  by 
men  of  the  highest  ability,  and  are  represented  by  J/. 
Antonius  and  L.  Licinius  CrassuSy  the  former  of  whom 
charmed  his  hearei'S  by  his  natural  vivacity,  lively  imagina- 
tion, and  biilliant  delivery ;  while  C^'ossus,  though  a  man  of 
fine  intellect,  extensive  knowledge  ot  the  law,  ready  wit,  and 
elegant  language,  did  not  aflTect  his  audiences  as  powerfully 
as  M.  Antonius.     But  besides  these  two,  a  host  of  distin- 


50  HISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATUHE.       [PERIOD  III. 

guished  orators  and  jurists  are  mentioned  whom  we  need  not 
enumerate,  as  no  complete  production  of  any  one  of  them 
has  come  down  to  us. 

41.  Among  historians  the  following  claim  our  attention : 

1.  Cn.  Aufidius,  who  flourished  at  a  period  coincident  with 
the  boyhood  of  Cicero.  He  wrote  an  historical  work  in 
Greek,  of  which  only  two  fragments  are  extant,  but  which 
seems  to  have  been  a  history  of  Rome  down  to  his  own 
time. 

2.  Q.  Claudius  Quadrigarius,  who  must  have  been  born 
about  B^c.  150,  and  seems  to  have  survived  the  death  of  Sulla 
in  B.C.  78.  Of  his  life  nothing  is  known,  but  his  history,  re- 
ferred to  as  Annales,  Historice,  or  Rerum  Romanarum  Lihri, 
consisted  of  at  least  twenty-three  books,  beginning  with  the 
capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls  and  coming  down  to  his  own 
time.  In  the  earlier  portion  he  seems  to  have  been  very 
brief,  but  he  gave  more  detailed  accounts  as  he  approached 
his  own  time.  He  is  frequently  quoted  by  Livy,  and  it  ap- 
pears that  he  often  exaggerated  the  number  of  enemies  slain 
in  battle.  His  style  and  language  must  in  many  respects 
have  been  old  fashioned  (Fragments  in  Krause,  p.  243,  foil.). 

3.  Valerius  Antias,  the  most  voluminous  predecessor  of 
Livy,  for  his  history  consisted  of  at  least  seventy-five  books, 
beginning  with  the  earliest  times,  of  which  he  treated  very 
minutely,  and  carrying  the  history  down  to  the  age  of  Sulla. 
We  know  his  work  chiefly  from  the  numerous  references 
made  to  it  by  Livy,  who  seems,  in  his  earliest  books,  to  have 
adopted  his  statements  without  any  misgivings ;  but  in  his 
later  books  Livy  is  evidently  conscious  of  his  defects,  and 
almost  calls  him  a  liar.     Valerius  was  anything  but  a  con- 
scientious or  critical  historian;  his  numbers  are  monstrously 
exaggerated,  and  are  probably  nothing  but  his  own  foolish 
inventions. 

4.  L.  Cornelius  Sisenna,  born  about  b.c.  119,  was 
praetor  in  B.C.  78,  and  died  in  Crete,  in  b,c.  67,  as  legate  of 
Pompey  during  the  war  against  the  pirates.  He  was  both  a 
philosopher  and  an  orator,  but  distinguished  himself  most  as 
an  historian,  and  in  that  capacity  he  was  thought  to  have 
surpassed  all  his  predecessors,  though  his  style  of  writing 
did  not  satisfy  Cicero.     His  work,  in  twelve  books,  bearing 


B.C.  150-80.] 


L.   LICINIUS  LUCULLUS. 


61 


the  title  Historice,  gave  an  account  of  the  Marsic  or  Social 
war,  and  of  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and  Marius ;  the 
latter  he  is  said  to  have  added  when  already  advanced  in 
years,  but  not  to  have  used  suflicient  freedom  in  the  expres- 
sion of  his  opinions.  Speeches  and  letters  were  introduced 
in  the  work.  As  to  his  style,  he  used  many  archaic  and 
unusual  expressions,  for  which  he  is  frequently  quoted  by 
the  later  grammarians.  He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Plautus,  explaining  difiicult  words  and  expressions,  but  what 
remains  of  it  does  not  give  us  a  high  opinion  of  him  as 
a  grammarian.  Lastly,  he  translated  the  lascivious  tales 
(Milesiaca)  of  Aristides,  which  he  seems  to  have  divided  into 
fifteen  books. 

5.  C.  Licinius  Macer,  the  father  of  the  poet  and  orator, 
Licinius  Calvus,  was  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Sisenna. 
He  was  quaestor  in  B.C.  89  and  afterwards  praetor.  He  was 
accused  by  Cicero  of  extortion  during  the  administration  of 
his  province,  and  being  found  guilty,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life.  His  historical  work,  called  Amiales,  Rerum  Romanarum 
Librif  or  Eistoricey  is  blamed  by  Cicero  for  verbosity  and 
quibbling,  while  others  thought  that  he  had  not  been  sufii- 
ciently  careful  in  his  inquiries ;  but  it  is  quite  evident,  from 
the  manner  in  which  he  is  referred  to  by  Livy,  tl^at  he  con- 
sulted at  least  the  historical  documents  of  Rome,  such  as  the 
Lihri  Lintei.  His  work  began  with  the  earliest  times,  but 
we  do  not  know  of  how  many  books  it  consisted,  nor  how 
far  it  carried  the  history.  Livy's  last  mention  of  him  re- 
fers to  the  year  B.C.  299,  but  from  this  it  does  not  follow 
that  Macer  stopped  there. 

6.  L.  Cornelius  Sulla,  the  dictator,  wrote  in  Latin  (some 
say  in  Greek)  an  account  of  his  own  life  in  twenty-two 
books,  dedicated  to  Lucullus,  but  shortly  after  he  had  com- 
menced the  last  book  he  died.  The  work  was,  however, 
completed  by  his  freedman,  Epicadus.  We  now  possess  only 
a  few  fragments  of  it,  but  Plutarch,  in  his  life  of  Sulla, 
seems  to  have  made  extensive  use  of  it. 

7.  L.  Licinius  Lucullus,  who  was  consul  in  b.c.  74,  and  a 
man  famous  for  his  wealth  and  his  intellectual  tastes,  wrote 
a  history  of  the  Marsic  war  m  Greek,  of  which  no  fragments 
84*6  extant 


>■■ ! 


52 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.       [PERIOD  III. 


8.  C.  Piso  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  a  Greek  work 
on  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and  Marius,  but  no  frag- 
ments of  it  are  extant,  nor  do  we  know  which  of  the  Piso 
family  is  meant. 

9.  L.  Voltacilius  Pilutus  is  said  to  have  been  a  slave, 
and  to  have  been  set  free  on  account  of  his  talent  and  his 
fondness  of  literature.  He  afterwards  established  himself  at 
Rome  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  became  the  instructor  of 
Cn.  Pompeius  Strabo,  the  father  of  Pompey.  He  is  men- 
tioned as  the  author  of  a  history  of  Pompey  and  his  father, 
and,  if  so,  he  was  the  first  freedman  who  undertook  to  write 
on  a  subject  of  Koman  history.  No  fragments  of  his  work 
are  known. 

42.  It  is  about  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  B.C.  that 
we  hear  of  several  schools,  both  at  Rome  and  in  other  parts 
of  Italy,  being  established  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  gmm- 
mar,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  Most  of  the  men  who  estab- 
lished such  schools,  and  whose  names  are  preserved  in 
Suetonius'  work,  De  Grammaticia  et  RhetoribiLSy  were  freed- 
men  and  foreignei-s.  Some  of  them  also  published  books,  as, 
for  example,  Aureluis  OpiliuSy  who  wrote  grammatical  works 
that  were  much  used  by  Varro  in  his  De  Lingua  Latina, 
and  by  Festus. 

The  same  period  produced  works  on  agriculture,  on  the 
management  of  domestic  affairs,  and  even  on  cookery,  which 
are  spoken  of  by  later  writers  on  the  same  subjects,  such  as 
Varro  and  Columella  .\v 

Philosophy  does  not  appear  to  have  been  much  cultivated, 
though  it  would  seem  that  oratora  generally  adopted  the 
views  of  the  new  Academy  and  the  Peripatetics,  while 
the  great  lawyers  generally  professed  the  doctrines  of  the 
Stoa.  Men  who  did  not  take  part  in  public  affairs  found 
more  satisfaction  in  the  teaching  of  the  Epicureans. 

43.  There  is  a  work  on  rhetoric  which,  from  some  allu- 
sions occurring  in  it,  must  have  been  written  during  the 
dictatorship  of  Sulla  or  shortly  after  his  death.  It  bears  the 
title  of  Rhetorica  ad  C.  Ilerennium,  and  consists  of  four  books. 
It  used  to  be  printed  together  with  the  rhetorical  works  of 
Cicero,  but  a  passage  in  Quintilian  leaves  very  little  doubt 
of  its  being  the  work  of  Cornificius,  though  it  is  uncertain 


B.C.  150-80.] 


L.    VOLTACILIUS   PILUTUS. 


53 


which  of  the  Comificii  mentioned  about  this  time  is  meant. 
The  work  contains  a  complete  system  of  rhetoric,  based  upon 
Greek  authorities,  but  its  author,  as  a  practical  Roman,  dis- 
cards all  the  useless  technicalities  abounding  in  Greek  works. 
The  subject  is  treated  with  great  clearness  and  independence 
of  judgment.  Cicero,  in  his  work  De  Inventione,  has  almost 
literally  copied  several  passages,  and  altogether  adopted  the 
system  and  method  of  Cornificius.  During  the  middle  ages 
the  work  was  much  read  and  often  copied.* 
*  The  best  modem  edition  is  that  of  C.  L.  Kayser:  Leipzig,  1854. 


FOURTH    PERIOD. 

The  Age  of  Cicero  and  Augustus  (from  about  b.c.  80  to 

ABOUT  A.D.   14). 

44.  This  may  be  called  the  ffolden  age  of  Latin  literature, 
in  regard  to  its  form  as  well  as  to  its  substance.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  period,  that  is,  the  age  of  Cicero,  prose  reached 
_its  highest  perfection^^^whilejioetry  produced  rEsjioblest  blos- 
soms in  the  time  oT^Auyistiis^^  The  time  from  the  dictator- 
"shlp  oi  Sulla  Jown  to  the  battle  of  Actium,  was  as  full  of 
political  excitement  as  any  that  preceded  it.  Consequently, 
oratory  and  political  literature  continued  to  predominate,  but 
oratory  in  particular  assumed  a  more  artistic  form  under  the 
influence  of  Greek  culture.  The  number  of  men  who,  like 
VaiTo,  still  tried  to  preserve  the  national  character  in  life 
and  literature,  was  reduced  to  a  very  small  minority ;  the 
current  of  Greek  influence  was  irresistible.  Greeks  were 
found  in  all  the  houses  ot'  the  great  and  wealthy  as  teachei*s, 
readers,  secretaries,  or  companions,  and  many  of  these  were 
mean  flatterers,  bent  upon  gratifying  their  masters  and 
securing  to  themselves  an  easy  and  luxurious  life,  whence 
the  very  name  Greek  (Grceculus)  was  used  as  a  term 
of  contempt.  It  became  more  and  more  the  custom  with 
young  Romans  of  rank  and  means  to  spend  some  time  at 
Athens,  Rhodes, ,  or  Mytilene.  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
rnetonc  and  philosophy.  Great  masses  of  Greek  literature 
and  works  of  Greek  art  had  been  brought  into  Italy  since 
the  subjugation  of  Greece ;  and  when  Athens  was  taken  by 
Sulla,  in  B.C.  86,  the  valuable  library  of  Apellico,  containing 
a  complete  set  of  Aristotle's  works,  was  carried  to  Rome. 
But  the  Romans  now,  as  before,  did  not  choose  the  great 
classical  authors  of  Hellas  for  their  models,  but  were  more 
fascinated  by  the  demoralising  productions  of  more  recent 
times.  Thus  the  orators  did  not  take  Demosthenes  for  their 
guide,  but  the  florid  rhetoricians  of  Asia  Minor ;  and  the 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]         AGE   OF   CICERO   AND   AUGUSTUS. 


55 


poets  followed  the  Alexandrian  poetastei's  rather  than  the 
grand  old  masters,  simply  because  they  were  charmed  by 
their  polished  langniage  and  style. 

45.  But  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  better  spirits  of  the 
Romans  soon  discovered  wherein  the  great  excellence  of  the 
Greeks  lay,  and  were  thus  enabled  to  produce  w^orks  that 
may  be  compared  with  the  master  works  of  Greek  genius. 
Such  works  cannot  indeed  conceal  their  Roman  origin,  which 
is  visible  partly  in  their  practical  tendency  and  partly  in  the 
absence  of  refinement  in  style  and  diction.  But  still  the 
form  of  literature,  which  until  then  had  been  regarded  as  of 
little  or  no  importance,  provided  its  matter  was  practically 
useful,  now  began  to  display  a  richness  and  variety  which 
could  not  fail  to  make  it  popular  and  valued  for  its  own 
sake,  and  indeed  so  much  so,  that  at  one  time  refined  forms 
and  elegance  of  language  were  thought  more  valuable  even 
than  the  thoughts  expressed. 

46.  The  branch  of  literature  which  flourished  most  through- 
out the  time  of  Cicero  wns  ornto^y,  in  which  the  practical  and 
energetic  spirit  of  the  Romans  was  tempered  by  artistic 
principles  developed  by  Greek  rhetoricians.  Hortensius  was 
a  striking  example  of  what  Roman  talent  alone  could  do,  but 
what  talent  combined  with  careful  training  and  the  study  of 
principles  could  efiect,  no  one  has  shown  more  clearly  than 
Cicero,  and  he  it  was  who  established  once  for  all  the  highest 
standard  and  most  perfect  form  of  Latin  prose.  This  change  in 
the  form  of  oratory  was  brought  about  by  the  careful  study 
of  the  principles  laid  down  by  Greek  rhetoricians,  and  by 
applying  them  to  the  wants  and  necessities  of  the  Romans. 

Political  discussions  and  historical  and  antiquarian  re- 
searches, of  which  Varro  furnished  the  most  splendid 
examples,  also  engaged  the  pens  of  many  men  of  eminence. 
Education  was  now  felt  to  be  a  matter  of  necessity  in  every 
part  of  Italy,  but  the  teachers,  the  pioneers  ot  civilizatioiiT' 
still  were  for  the  most  part  freedmen  of  Greek  origin.  The 
"same  men  also  diilused  a  taste  lor  philosophical  discussion ; 
but  speculation  was  at  no  time  a  favourite  pursuit  among 
the  Romans,  and  very  few  entered  deeply  into  philosophical 
questions.  The  only  philosophical  works  produced  during 
this  period  are  those  of  the  poet  Lucretiua^andof  Cicero. 


V 


^i 


*'t,<Ax«<^'»*t.  >t..aZ<</t^€h/^ 


56 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD    IV. 


47.  Poetry  for  a  long  time  played  a  very  subordinate  pai-t 
during  this  period,  but  only  to  reappear  afterwards  with  all 
the  greater  brillia^^cy  and  in  the  most  varied  forms.  The 
drama  alone  was  not  cultivated;  the  poets  trained  in  the 
schools  of  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  disdained  to  contribute 
to  the  popular  amusements,  and  to  have  preferred  to  imitate 
the  Alexandrians,  who,  wanting  in  poetical  genius,  attached 
the  greatest  importance  io  correctness  and  elegance  of  style. 
The  Roman  stage,  therefore,  had  to  be  content  with  repro- 
ducing the  tragedies  and  comedies  of  the  older  poets.  The 
only  scenic  poetry  which  received  a  new  development  was  the 
mimics,  which,  through  Laberiufc,  and  Publilius  Syrus,  became 
a  regular  branch  of  dramatic  literature. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  after  the  Marsic  war, 
when  the  Roman  franchise  was  conferred  upon  the  Italians, 
and  still  more  when  Cisalpine  Gaul  obtained  the  same  privi- 
leges, what  originally  had  been  Roman  or  Latin  literature 
became  the  literature  of  Italy.  Men  of  talent  from  every 
pai-t  of  the  country  now  went  to  the  head  and  centre  of 
civilization,  and,  coming  from  parts  that  were  yet  unconta- 
minated  by  the  vices  and  follies  of  the  capital,  they  no  doubt 
exercised  a  salutary  influence. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  fourth  period  of  Latin  litera- 
ture, Cicero  is  the  central  figure,  around  which  his  contem- 
poraries may  be  grouped.  The  time  is  so  rich  in  men  of 
eminence  that  it  will  be  convenient  to  subdivide  the  Cicero- 
nian era  into  two  parts,  the  year  of  Cicero's  consulship,  b.c. 
63,  forming  a  kind  of  turning  point ;  the  first  part  extends 
from  B.C.  83  to  b.c.  63,  and  the  second  from  b.c.  63  to  B.C.  43. 

A.  From  the  Dictatorship  op  Sulla  to  the 
Consulship  of  Cicero. 

48.  By  far  the  most  important  and  most  productive  wi-iter. 
of  this  period,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  next  to  Cicero,  is 

M.  Terentius  Varro.  He  was  bom  in  b.c.  1 16  at  Reate,  in 
the  country  of  the  Sabines,  and  was  accordingly  ten  years 
older  than  Cicero.  He  belonged  to  an  ancient  senatorial  family, 
and  was  brought  up  in  the  simple  and  hardy  manner  which 
distinguished  the  Sabines  from  the  luxurious  Romans,  and  re- 
ceived instruction  from  Philo.  He  belonged  to  the  party  of  the 


B.C.  80-a.d.  14.]        M.  terentius  varro. 


57 


/ 


optimates,  and  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Pompey,  A  tticus, 
and  Cicero.  In  due  course  he  obtained  the  tribuneship  of  the 
plebs,  the  curule  sedileship,  and  praetorship.  He  served  as 
legate  under  Pompey  in  the  wars  against  the  pirates  and 
against  Mithradates.  In  the  former  he  distinguished  himself 
so  much  that  Pompey  honoured  him  with  a  corona  navalis.  In 
B.C.  49  he  served  in  Spain  with  Afranius  and  Petreius,  the 
lieutenants  of  Pompey ;  but  as  one  of  his  legions  revolted  he 
surrendered  to  Csesar,  and  on  account  of  his  great  learning 
was  appointed  by  him  librarian  of  the  public  library  which 
was  about  to  be  established  at  Rome.  Henceforth  he  took 
no  active  part  in  public  affairs.  M.  Antony,  who  had  con- 
fiscated one  of  his  estates,  was  compelled  by  Caesar  to  restore 
it ;  but  he  afterwards  seized  it  again,  and,  in  B.C.  43,  caused 
his  name  to  be  entered  in  the  list  of  proscribed  persons.  His 
life  was  indeed  saved  by  a  friend,  but  a  portion  of  his  rich 
library  and  his  extensive  landed  property  were  lost.  Thence- 
forth he  lived  in  retirement,  devoting  himself  entirely  to 
literary  pursuits,  until  the  year  B.C.  28,  when  he  died,  having 
reached  his  ninetieth  year. 

49.  Notwithstanding  the  active  part  he  had  taken  in  public 
affairs  during  his  earlier  years,  he  had  from  the  first  turned 
his  attention  chiefly  to  literary  and  historical  studies.  Varro 
was  a  genuine  patriot,  a  man  of  unblemished  character,  who 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  all  parties  and  did  all  he  could  to 
keep  up  the  ancient  national  spirit.  As  an  author  he  showed 
the  most  marvellous  fertility,  and  wrote  upon  the  most 
varied  subjects,  both  in  prose  and  in  verse.  Although  a 
strong  upholder  of  everything  that  was  national,  he  did  not 
neglect  Greek  culture,  but  he  seems  to  have  been  little  con- 
cerned about  beauty  or  elegance  in  his  own  works.  The 
number  of  books  he  wrote  is  computed,  perhaps  by  himself, 
at  620,  which  belonged  to  74  distinct  works ;  but,  unfor- 
tunately, those  works  which  would  give  us  the  clearest  idea 
of  the  man  and  his  time  are  lost,  and  of  very  many  we  only 
know  the  titles.  Only  two  of  them  have  come  down  to 
our  time,  and  even  these  not  without  many  defects  and 
mutilations. 

60.  The  poetical  works  of  Varro  were,  for  the  most  part, 
produced  during  his  earlier  yeai-s.     Among  them  are  men- 


5S  filSTOBY  Of  LATIN  LITERATURE.  ("PERIOD  IV. 

tioned  Pseudotragcedice  in  six  books,  and  especially  SaturcR 
Menippece  in  150  books,  written  partly  in  prose  and  partly 
ill  verse.  They  were  called  Menippeae,  because  Varro  imitated 
tbe  Greek  Cynic  Menippus,  whose  writings  seem  to  have 
been  of  a  humorous  character,  intended  to  produce  laughter 
and  merriment.  The  fragments  of  Van-o's  bear  out  this 
character,  for  they  show  sometimes  a  playful  humour,  while 
at  other  times  he  strongly  censures  his  contemporaries 
for  abandoning  the  simplicity  and  honesty  of  their  fore- 
fathers. Hence  they  must,  in  many  respects,  have  re- 
sembled the  satires  of  Lucilius  and  Horace.  Their  metres 
also  appear  to  have  been  of  various  kinds,  though  iambic 
senarii  predominated.*  He  also  composed  lyric  poems  in 
ten  books. 

61.  His  prose  works  were  of  the  most  varied  kind,  em- 
bracing nearly  every  department  of  human  knowledge, 
orations,  political  and  literary  history,  antiquities,  jurispru- 
dence, philosophy,  grammar,  geography,  agriculture,'  etc.  In 
all  this  variety  of  subjects  his  attention  was  mainly  directed 
towards  the  affairs  of  Rome  and  Italy,  that  is,  all  bore  a 
truly  national  character.  This  peculiarity  secured  to  his 
works  a  great  influence,  not  only  among  his  contemporaries, 
but  also  among  succeeding  generations,  as  is  clear  from  the 
fact  that  several  of  the  Christian  fathers,  especially  St.  Au- 
gustin,  frequently  refer  to  his  works.  But  afterwards  they 
seem  to  have  fallen  into  utter  oblivion,  if  we  except  the  two 
works  still  extant.     They  may  be  classified  as  follows : — 

62.  1.  Works  on  History  and  Antiquities.— The  most 
important  among  these  were — 

a.  Antiquitates  Rerum  Humanarum  et  Divhmrumy  in  forty- 
one  books,  twenty-five  of  which  were  devoted  to  human 
affairs.  They  were  addressed  to  Julius  Caesar  as  pontifex, 
and  seem  to  have  been  intended  to  check  the  genei-al  decay 
of  the  national  religion.! 

h.  Annates  in  three  books,  probably  a  short  summary  of 
Roman  history. 

*  The  remains  of  Varro's  Saturce  Menippece  have  been  collected 
by  A.  Riese:  Leipzig,  1865. 

^  t  The  fragments  of  this  work  are  collected  by  R.  Merkel  in  his 
introduction  to  Ovid's  Fasti, 


t.C.  80- A. D.  14.]  M.   TERENTIUS  VARRO. 


5D 


c.  De  vita  Populi  Romania  in  four  books,  addressed  to 
Atticus,  seems  to  have  been  a  kind  of  history  of  Roman 
civilization.* 

d.  De  gente  Populi  Romania  in  four  books,  was  an  attempt 
to  harmonise  Roman  chronology  with  that  of  general  history, 
and  thus  to  establish  the  historical  pedigree  of  the  Roman 
people. 

e.  De  familiis  Trojanis,  in  several  books,  contained  the 
genealogies  of  Roman  patrician  families  claiming  to  be 
descended  from  -^neas. 

f.  Aetia  (AVrta),  contained  explanations  of  customs  in  the 
private  life  of  the  Romans. 
^  g.  Rerum  Urhanarum  lihri  treSy  perhaps  a  history  of  the 
city  of  Rome  and  its  topography. 

All  these  works  seem  to  have  been  more  or  less  detailed 
discussions  of  points  touched  upon  in  his  Antiquitates  Rerum 
Humanarum  et  Divinarum. 

63.  2.  Works  on  Literature  and  Literary  History.— 

Among  the  numerous  works  on  literary  subjects,  the  most 
important  were  probably  those  on  dramatic  literature,  and 
especially  on  Plautus.  A  work  entitled  Imaginum  libri 
XV.  (also  called  Hehdomades)^  was  a  biographical  picture- 
book,  containing  700  portraits  of  Greek  and  Roman  cele- 
brities, each  portrait  being  accompanied  by  a  brief  practical 
eulogy  of  the  person  represented.  Varro  himself  seems  after- 
wards to  have  published  an  abridged  edition,  probably  with- 
out the  portraits. 

A  work  called  Disciplinarum  libri  IX. ,  was  the  first 
encyclopaedic  production  among  the  Romans.  It  was  a 
manual  of  what  were  called  the  nine  liberal  arts  amonjr  the 
ancients,  viz.,  grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric,  geometry,  arith- 
metic, astrology,  music,  medicine,  and  architecture.  As 
each  of  these  subjects  was  treated  of  briefly,  it  seems  that 
afterwards  Varro  wrote  special  and  more  detailed  treatises 
on  soDie  of  them. 

All  these  works,  those  in  verse  as  well  as  those  in  prose, 
as  we  have  already  remarked,  seem  to  have  fallen   into 

*  The  fragments  of  this  work  have  been  collected  by  Kettner: 
HaUe,  1863.  / 


CO  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  IV. 

oblivion  after  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  There 
still  exists  a  collection  of  maxims  and  wise  sayings,  entitled 
SententixB  Varronis,  about  160  in  number.  They  may  indeed 
contain  some  sayings  extracted  from  the  works  of  Varro; 
but  most  of  them  are  of  uncertain  origin,  and  seem  to  be  a 
compilation  made  by  some  obscure  grammarian  of  the  eighth 
century  after  Christ. 

64.  Of  all  the  works  of  Yarro  the  only  two  that  have 
come  down  to  our  time  are : — 

1.  De  Lingua  Latina,  which  originally  consisted  of  twenty- 
five  books,  but  is  now  in  a  very  incomplete  and  mutilated 
condition.     We  possess  only  books  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10;  but 
even  of  these  6,  8,  and  10  are  defective  at  the  end,  and  7  and 
9  at  the  beginning.     The  text  of  what  we  have  is  further 
much   corrupted   and  intei-polated.      From   the   fifth  book 
onward  the  work  was  dedicated  to  Cicero,  whence  this  part 
cannot  have  been  written  later  than  B.C.   43.      The  first 
part  of  the  whole  work  treated  of  etymology,  the  second  of 
declension  and  conjugation,  and  the  third  of  syntax.     All 
the  extant  parts  are  to  us  of  very  great  importance;  they 
contain  not  only  the  results  of  Varro's  own  studies  in  anti- 
quarian and  linguistic  matters,  but  also  those  of  others,  and 
give  us  information  on  subjects  which  only  a  Roman  could 
know.       On   etymological   questions,  like  the   rest   of  the 
Romans,  Varro's   opinions  are   of  little  value,  and  some- 
times very  arbitrary.     But  we  ought  not  to  blame  him  for 
not  knowing  what  he  could  not  know.* 
.  2.  De  Be  Rustica,  or  RerxLm  Rusticarum  lihri  tres,  is  pre- 
served entire,  except  a  gap  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
book.     The  first  book  treats  of  agriculture,  the  second  of  the 
breeding  of  cattle,  and  the  third  of  fowls  and  fishes.     This 
work,  which  appears  to  have  been  one  of  Varro's  latest,  must 
have  been  written  about  B.C.  37,  and  contains  the  observa- 
tions gathered  during  his  long  and  active  life.  It  is  composed 
m  the  form  of  dialogues,  resembling  those  of  Cicero's  philo- 
sophical writings;  but  Varro's  scenery  and  action  is  more 

•  ♦  The  best  editions  of  the  De  Lignua  Latina  are  those  of  L. 
Spengel:  Berhn,  1826;  and  of  C.  O.  Miiller:  Leipzig,  1833.  The 
i3ipoiit  edition,  in  two  vols.,  contains  a  fair  coUection  of  the  frac- 
ments  of  all  Varro's  works.  ^ 


B.C.  80- A. D.  14.]  M.    TERENTIUS   VARRO. 


61 


animated,  and  he  indulges  in  homely  and  good-natured  wit. 
The  style  of  this  work,  as  that  of  De  Lingua  Latina^  is 
simple  and  unadorned.^ 

55.  The  most  celebrated  orator  among  the  older  contem- 
poraries of  Cicero  was  Q.  Hortensius,  bom  in  B.C.  114;  he 
held  successively  the  oflSces  of  sedile,  praetor,  and  consul, 
and  died  young,  in  B.c.(?C5  of  a  disease  of  the  throat.  Ho 
belonged  to  the  party  oT'the  optimates.  He  was  endowed 
with  extraordinary  powers  of  memory,  and  this,  together 
with  his  exquisite  delivery  and  choice  of  graceful  language, 
placed  him  for  a  time  at  the  head  of  all  contemporary  orators, 
until  he  was  eclipsed  by  Cicero,  who  was  eight  years  younger. 
Hortensius  always  behaved  kindly  towards  his  great  rival, 
and  acknowledged  his  superiority.  His  speeches  when 
read  were  not  as  efiective  as  when  spoken.  He  delivered  a 
countless  number,  some  of  which  he  published,  and  we  still 
know  of  twenty-six  occasions  on  which  he  spoke  in  public. 
He  also  wrote  on  questions  connected  with  oratory,  and  a 
work  called  Annales,  and  several  erotic  poems,  t 

Contemporary  orators  of  inferior  reputation  were — 3f. 
Licinius  Crassus,  triumvir  with  Caesar  and  Pompey;  L. 
Licinius  Lucullus,  M,  Pupius  Piso,  Pompey^  and  others, 
most  of  whom  published  speeches. 

56.  During  the  first  period  of  Cicero's  life,  Rome  could 
boast  of  no  writer  of  eminence,  either  in  history  or  philo- 
sophy. The  best  known  among  those  who  occupied  them- 
selves with  history  is  Ciceros'  friend  T.  Pomponlus  Atticus, 
born  in  B.C.  109,  and  belonging  to  a  wealthy  equestrian 
family.  He  took  no  active  part  in  public  affairs,  and  is 
chiefly  known  through  his  connection  with  other  men,  especi- 
ally with  Cicero,  and  through  the  eulogistic  biography  by 
Cornelius  Nepos.  His  friends  praised  him  much  for  having 
written  a  small  book,  called  Annalis^  which  seems  to  have 
been  a  meagre  synchronistic  history  of  Rome  in  the  form  of 
chronological  tables,  drawn  up  with  great  care  and  accuracy. 
Atticus  also  wrote  an  account  of  Cicero's  consulship  in  Greek, 

*  The  best  editions  are  those  in  J.  M.  Gesner's  and  Schneider's 
collections  of  the  Scriptores  Rei  RusticcB. 

t  The  fragments  of  Hortensius  are  collected  in  H.  Meyer's  Ora- 
torum  Rom.  fragrmntaf  p.  361,  foil. 


I 


G2 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  lY. 


'  ii 
Pi 


and  laudatory  verses  which  were  to  be  wi-itten  under  the 
images  of  illustrious  Romans. 

Other  writers  of  historical  works,  of  which  however  little 
or  nothing  is  known,  were  Procilius^  Horiefasius  (see  p.  61), 
LucceiuSf  Sulpicius,  L.  Tuhero,  and  a  few  others. 

There  were  some  men  who,  before  Cicero's  endeavours  to 
popularise  Greek  philosophy  among  the  Romans,  tried  to 
explain  the  doctrines  of  the  Epicureans  to  their  countrymen, 
as  AmaJiniuSy  RahiriuSj  and  Catiits;  but  they  simply  stated 
the  views  of  Epicurus,  without  any  opinions  of  their  own, 
and  without  any  regard  to  style.  Cicero  speaks  of  them 
with  something  like  contempt. 

The  study  of  the  law  and  its  principles,  on  the  other  hand, 
made  immense  progi-ess,  and  the  teachings  and  writings  of  such 
men  as  C.  Aquilius  Gallus^  a  worthy  disciple  of  the  pontifex, 
Q.  Scsevola,  and  Ser.  Sulpicius  Rufus^  exercised  an  influence 
upon  the  study  of  law  which  was  felt  for  centuries. 

57.  M.  Tullius  Cicero*  was  born,  in  b.c.  106,  on  his 
father's  estate,  near  Arpinum,  and  belonged  to  an  equestrian 
family.  Together  with  his  brother,  Quintus,  he  was  educated 
at  Rome,  where  at  an  early  age  he  liad  opportunities  of 
listening  to  the  most  distinguished  oratoi-s,  rhetoricians,  and 
philosophers.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  attached  himself, 
according  to  the  common  practice  of  the  time,  to  an  eminent 
lawyer,  the  augur  Screvola,  in  order  to  prepare  himself  under 
his  guidance  for  public  business.  After  the  death  of  the  augur, 
he  joined  the  pontifex  Scsevola.  Besides  his  legal  and 
rhetorical  pursuits,  he  also  studied  philosophy,  and  it  may 
be  that  his  connection  with  the  Greek  poet  Archias  led  him 
to  court  the  muse  of  poetry. 

Thus  prepared,  he  entered,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  upon 
the  career  of  an  orator,  or  as  we  should  say,  of  a  hamster. 
In  the  following  year  he  defended  Quintius  in  a  private  suit. 
When  he  was  twenty-seven  yeara  old,  b.c.  80,  he  defended 
Sex.  Roscius  of  Ameria,  who  was  accused  of  having 
murdered  his  own  father.  All  the  young  man's  friends 
declined  to  undertake  his  defence  from  fear  of  the  all-power- 

*  For  a  full  account  of  the  hfe  of  Cicero,  see  Con.  Middleton's  or 
W.  Forsyth's  Li/e  of  Cicero;  the  latter  was  published  in  London, 


B.C.  80  A.D.  14.]  M.    TULLIUS   CICERO. 


63 


ful  dictator,  Sulla,  one  of  whose  favourites  was  compromised 
in  the  afiair;  but  Cicero  boldly  undertook  it,  and  saved  his 
client.  The  speech  has  many  defects  like  that  for  Quintius; 
but  is  nevertheless  a  noble  monument  of  his  moral  courat^o. 
After  this  he  travelled  for  three  years  in  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor,  perhaps  on  account  of  his  health,  everywhere  seeking 
instruction  from  orators,  rhetoricians,  and  philosophers.  His 
studies  during  that  journey  had  its  influence  upon  his  whole 
career  as  an  orator,  for  in  his  speeches  he  blends  the  flowery 
character  of  Asiatic  oratory  with  the  sober  and  earnest  one 
of  the  Athenian  orators  and  philosophers. 

After  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  elected  quaestor,    in 
B.C.  75,  and  was  sent  to  Sicily  in  that  capacity;  in  B.C.  72 
he  became  curule  sedile,  in  b.c.  66  praetor  urbanus,  and  in 
B.C.  63  consul,  the  highest  dignity  that  his  country  had  to 
offer,  although  he  was  only  a  novus  homo.     The  suppression 
of  the  Catilinarian  conspiracy  during  his  consulship  afforded 
his  enemies  a  welcome  pretext  for  attacking  him  through 
the  person  of  Clodius;  the  consequence  was  that,  in  B.c.  58, 
he  had  to  go  into  exile,  during  which  he  stayed  piincipally 
at  Thessalonica  and  DyiTachium.      But  in  the  following 
year  he  was  allowed  to  return,  and  was  received  with  the 
greatest  honours  by  his  countrymen.    In  B.c.  51  he  was  sent 
out   as  proconsul  to  undertake   the  administration  of  the 
province  of  Cilicia.   On  his  return  to  Rome,  in  the  following 
year,  the  feud  between  Pompey  and  Caesar  had  already  broken 
out.  After  having  in  vain  counselled  peace,  he  joined  Pompey 
in  B.c.   49  at  Dyrrachium,  where  he  remained   during  the 
time  of  the  decisive  battle  of  Pharsalus  in  B.C.  48.     After 
this  he  went  to  Brundisium,  waiting  for  the  return  of  vic- 
torious Caesar,  and  hoping  to  be  permitted  to  return  to  Rome. 
This  being  gi-anted,  he  spent  the  years  B.c.  46  and  45  in 
retirement,  devoting  his  time  to  writing  a  great  variety  of 
works.     His  literary  activity  during  those  two  years  is  truly 
marvellous.     The  mui'der  of  Julius  Caesar,  in  B.C.  44,  drew 
Cicero  again  into  the  arena  of  public  life.     His  attacks  on 
M.  Antony  in  his  Philippic  speeches  brought  upon  him  the 
implacable  enmity  of  M.  Antony,  who,  in  b.c.  43,  caused  his 
name  to  be  put  upon  the  proscription  Hst.     He  was  killed 
on  the  7th  of  December  of  the  same  vear, 


64 


HISTORY    OP    LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 


58.  Few  men  have  been  so  extravagantly  praised  and  so 
extravagantly  blamed  as  Cicero;  for  while  some  recent 
writers  seem  to  find  a  jjleasure  in  denying  to  him  every 
virtue,  except  a  clever  mastery  over  his  own  language,  earlier 
critics,  captivated  by  the  charms  and  beauties  of  his  stylo, 
have  placed  him  even  above  Plato  and  Demosthenes. 

Cicero  was  endowed  by  nature  with  great  and  varied  gifts, 
which  he  strove  to  cultivate  with  indomitable  zeal.  He  was 
always  aiming  at  what  was  good  and  honourable,  and  he 
may  certainly  claim  our  respect  and  admiration,  if  we 
compare  him  with  most  men  of  his  time,  who  aimed  at 
nothing  beyond  gi-atifying  their  own  selfishness  and  their 
desire  to  accumulate  wealth.  But  he  was  of  an  extremely 
sensitive  nature,  which  was  deeply  hurt  and  ofiended  when 
he  met  what  he  considered  undeserved  opposition  or  ingiati- 
tude.  His  excitable  imagination  and  his  fine  feelings  made 
him  a  great  orator  and  a  lovable  man ;  but  these  same  feel- 
ings made  him  irritable,  and  as  easily  elated  as  he  was  easily 
depressed.  Such  a  character  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  be 
a  great  statesman,  and  unfortunately  he  did  not  possess  suffi- 
cient self-knowledge  to  be  aware  of  this,  or  not  sufficient 
resignation  to  act  accordingly.  He  always  had  the  best 
intentions,  but  lacked  the  calmnessof  judgment,  the  sagacity 
to  discern  the  right  and  the  wrong,  and  the  courage  and  per- 
severance requisite  to  carry  out  his  intentions.  Hence  he 
found  himself  at  times  sought  after,  courted,  and  made  use 
of,  and  at  other  times  neglected  and  forsaken.  He  tried  to 
steer  between  contending  parties,  and  found  himself  forsaken 
by  both.  We  have  already  seen  that  occasionally  he  showed 
great  moral  courage  where  others  shrunk  from  committing 
themselves,  but  at  other  times  he  trembled  at  the  prospect 
of  approaching  danger.  In  fact,  his  character  seems  to  have 
been  wanting  in  unity  and  consistency.  The  vanity  with 
which  he  is  so  often  charged  was  only  the  result  of  his  sen- 
sitive and  finely-strung  nature,  and  is  more  or  less  discernible 
in  all  similar  chamcters.  Lastly,  we  must  not  forget  that 
Cicero,  in  his  extensive  coiTespondence  with  intimate  friends, 
lays  himself  unreservedly  open  to  us,  and  shows  us  his 
inmost  thoughts  and  feelings  with  the  utmost  frankness  and 
candour ;  and  we  may  fairly  ask,  in  what  light  w^ould  his 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


M.    TULLIUS  CICERO. 


65 


gi-eat  contemporaries  appear,  if  their  correspondence  had  come 
down  to  us  as  complete  as  that  of  Cicero  ?  We  believe  that 
none  of  them  would  be  found  equal  to  him  in  integiity  and 
moral  worth.  If,  therefore,  we  cannot  regard  Cicero  as  a 
great,  strong,  and  model  character,  we  must  admit  that  there 
are  many  circumstances  and  many  reasons  which  ought  to 
make  us  judge  of  him  leniently. 

'^  59.  Cicero  possessed  the  wonderful  power  of  reproducing, 
in  easy  and  flowing  language,  whatever  he  knew  or  learned; 
and  by  this  means  he  has  enriched  Latin  literature  with 
several  new  branches,  and  has  become  the  creator  of  a  Latin 
prose  which,  in  point  of  fullness,  beauty,  and  correctness,  has 
never  been  surpassed,  and  has  become  the  model  for  all  suc- 
ceeding ages.  But  the  very  facility  and  the  pleasure  he  had 
m  writing  was  not  without  its  dangers;  he  seems  occasionally 
to  have  exercised  his  power  of  literary  composition  without 
haying  gone  through  the  necessary  study  and  preparation. 
This  defect  is  visible  especially  in  the  numerous  works  he 
produced  during  the  two  years  preceding  the  murder  of 
Caesar. 

His  real  vocation  and  his  real  talent  was  that  of  an  orator, 
and  to  this  department  belong  his  most  brilliant  productions! 
Most  of  the  speeches  which  he  delivered  were  carefully  pre- 
pared and  afterwards  revised  and  published.  His  extraor- 
dinary command  of  language,  which  always  supplied  him 
with  the  right  words  at  the  right  moment,  his  great  power  of 
memory,  his  wit,  his  sonorous  voice  and  dignified  appearance, 
enabled  him  to  eclipse  all  his  contemporaries  as  an  orator, 
and  to  gain  a  reputation  which  places  him  second  only  to 
Demosthenes.  This  pre-eminence  he  attained  by  his  inde- 
fatigable endeavours  to  reach  the  highest  perfection,  for  every 
success  was  to  him  only  a  stimulus  to  fresh  exertions  to 
attain  a  still  greater  success. 

The  works  of  Cicero  must  be  classified  as  follows  :— 

A.    ORATIONS. 

60.  We  still  possess  fifty-seven  orations,  and  fragments  of 
about  twenty  others ;  to  these  must  be  added  thirty-three,  of 
which  we  know  at  least  that  they  were  delivered,  and  some 
laudations  which  were  only  written,  viz.,  one  on  Caesar,  in 


66 


HISTORY  OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 


« 


V 


B.C.  56 ;  one  on  the  younger  Cato,  in  B.C.  46 ;  and  one  on 
Cato's  sister,  Porcia,  in  b.c.  45.  The  following  is  a  chrono- 
logical list  of  Cicero's  extant  orations  : — 

1.  Pro  QuintiOf  delivered  in  B.C.  81  (see  p.  62). 

2.  Fro  Sext,  Roscio  AmerinOf  delivered  in  b.c.  80  (see  p.  62). 

3.  Pro  Q.  Roscio  ComcedOy  commonly  supposed  to  have  been 
delivered  in  b.c.  76.  C.  Fannius  Chserea  had  intrusted  to 
the  actor  Roscius  a  slave,  to  be  instructed  in  the  histrionic 
art,  on  condition  that  afterwards  the  earnings  of  the  slave 
should  be  divided  between  the  owner  and  the  teacher  of  the 
slave.  The  slave,  however,  was  killed  by  one  Flavius,  who 
paid  compensation  firat  to  Roscius  and  afterwards  to  Fan- 
nius. The  dispute  to  which  the  speech  refers  is  the  fair 
division  of  the  compensation. 

4.  Pro  M.  Tullio,  delivered,  in  b.c.  72  or  71,  before  a  court 
of  reciperatores.  The  subject  is  a  complaint  in  the  name 
of  Tullius  against  a  neighbour,  P.  Fabius,  one  of  Sulla's 
veterans,  who  had  destroyed  a  country  house  of  Tullius  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Thurii. 

5.  Divinatio  in  Cceciliumy  delivered  in  B.C.  70,  In  this 
speech  Cicero  claims  and  establishes  his  right  to  come  for- 
ward as  accuser  of  Verres,  on  account  of  his  misdeeds  aa 
praetor  of  Sicily,  in  opposition  to  Q.  Csecilius  Niger,  whom 
Verres  himself  would  have  preferred  as  accuser,  because  he 
considered  him  quite  harmless. 

6-11.  Orations  against  Verres  belong  to  the  year  B.C.  70. 
They  consist  of  two  actioneSy  the  first  of  which  was  delivered 
in  the  month  of  August  as  a  mere  introduction  to  the  real 
accusation.  The  rich  materials  which  Cicero  had  gathered  from 
witnesses  and  documentary  evidence  he  afterwards  elaborated 
in  the  five  books  of  the  a^tio  secunday  when  the  culprit  had 
already  been  condemned.  These  speeches,  therefore,  were 
written  out,  but  not  delivered.  The  titles  of  the  five  books 
sufficiently  indicate  the  subject  treated  of  in  each,  viz.,  De 
Prcetura  Urhanay  Be  Jurisdictione  Siciliensiy  Be  FrumentOj 
Be  SigniSy  and  Be  Suppliciis.  The  orator,  of  course,  speaks 
as  if  judgment  had  not  yet  been  passed  upon  Verres,  and  as 
if  he  could  still  influence  the  minds  of  the  judges.* 

*  There  is  a  good  edition  of  the  Verrine  orations,  with  an  excellent 
eorociefttary  by  Geo.  Long,  2nd  Edition:  London,  1862. 


B.O.  SO-A.D.  14.] 


M.    TULLIUS   CICERO. 


C7 


12.  Pro  Fonteio,  delivered  in  B.C.  69;  a  defence  of  Fon- 
teiiis  against  the  charge  of  maladministration  {repetundcK), 
This  speech  has  not  come  down  complete. 

13.  Pro  Ccecina  also  belongs  to  the  year  b.c.  69,  and  was 
delivered  before  reciperatores.  It  refera  to  a  disputed  in- 
heritance. 

14.  Be  Impeiio  Cn.  Pompd,  sometimes  called  Pro  Lege 
Maniliay  is  a  splendid  speech,  delivered  in  B.C.  QQy  when 
Cicero  was  prsetor,  in  support  of  a  bill  proposed  by  C. 
Manilius,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  who  proposed  that  the  com- 
mand against  Mithradates  should  be  given  to  Pompey. 
Cicero's  praise  of  Pompey  is  somewhat  overdone. 

15.  Pro  A,  Cluentio  Habito  is  a  defence  of  a  prisoner,  and 
belongs  to  the  year  B.C.  QQ."^ 

^  16-18.  Three  speeches,  Be  Lege  Agraria,  against  P.  Ser- 
yilius  Rullus.  They  are  the  first  speeches  delivered  by  Cicero 
in  his  consulship,  B.C.  63.  In  them  he  combats  the  reckless 
proposal  of  the  tribune  Servilius  Rullus,  to  appoint  a  com- 
mission of  ten  men,  with  unlimited  power,  for  the  purpose  of 
purchasing  and  distributing  lands  in  Italy.  The  first  of  these 
speeches  was  delivered  in  the  senate  on  the  1st  of  January ; 
only  the  last  part  of  it  has  come  down  to  us.  The  second 
and  third  were  addressed  to  the  people.  A  fourth  speech 
also  is  mentioned,  but  it  is  lostf 

19.  Pro  C.  Rabirioy  who  was  accused  of  perduellio,  also 
belongs  to  the  year  of  Cicero's  consulship,  b.c.  63. 

20-23.  Four  speeches  In  L.  Catilinam,  the  well-known 
conspirator.  The  first  of  them  was  delivered  in  the  senate 
on  the  7th  of  November,  B.C.  63,  and  in  it  Cicero  boldly 
attacks  Catiline,  and  shows  that  he  is  acquainted  with  all  his 
proceedings.  The  second  was  delivered  on  the  day  following 
to  the  people,  whom  Cicero  informs  of  Catiline's  sudden 
departure,  and  of  what  had  taken  place  in  the  senate.  The 
third  was  addressed  to  the  people  on  the  3rd  of  December, 
and  told  them  of  the  arrest  of  the  conspirators  who  had 
i^mained  in  the   city.     The  fourth  was  addressed   to  the 

*  There  is  a  good  edition  of  this  speech  with  commentarv  bv  W 
Ramsay:  Glasgow,  1858. 

t  A  good  edition  of  these  speeches,  with  commentary,  was  pub- 
lished  by  A.  W.  Zumpt:  Berlin,  1861. 


68 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 


senate  on  the  5  th  of  December,  during  the  discussion  as  to 
what  punishment  should  be  inflicted  on  the  prisoners.  Cicero 
inclines  to  the  opinion  that  they  should  be  put  to  death. 

24.  Pro  L.  Murena  was  delivered  in  B.C.  63,  about  the 
same  time  that  Cicero  attacked  Catiline.  It  is  a  defence  of 
Murena,  consul-elect,  who  was  accused  of  bribery.  The 
speech  is  excellent,  composed  in  a  playful  tone,  and  full  of 
v/itty  allusions  to  jurisprudence  and  the  Stoic  philosophy.* 

25.  Fro  Comelio  Sulla  belongs  to  b,c.  62,  and  is  a  very 
successful  defence  of  Sulla  against  the  charge  of  having  been 
an  accomplice  in  the  Catilinarian  conspii'acy. 

26.  Pro  Archia,  delivered  in  B.C.  62,  is  a  defence  of  the 
poet  Archias,  who  was  accused  of  having  illegally  usurped 
the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen. 

27.  Pro  Valerio  Flacco\  delivered  in  B.C.  59,  a  successful 
defence  of  Flaccus,  who  had  been  accused  by  D.  Lselius  of 
extortion. 

28-31.  Four  speeches,  Post  Reditum^  that  is,  after  his 
return  from  exile.  In  the  first  the  orator  thanks  the  senate, 
in  the  second  he  thanks  the  people,  while  in  the  third  he 
addresses  the  pontiffs  {de  domo  sua  ad  pontijlces),  trying  to 
prove  to  them  that  the  consecration  by  Clodius  of  the  place 
on  which  his  liouse  had  stood  was  invalid,  and  that  therefore 
he  had  a  right  to  reclaim  it.  These  three  speeches  belong  to 
the  month  of  September,  B.C.  57.  The  fourth,  i>e  haruspi- 
cum  responsiSj  belonging  to  B.C.  56,  was  occasioned  by  the 
declaration  of  the  haruspices  that  what  was  sacred  had  been 
disregarded,  a  remark  which  Clodius  had  referred  to  the 
rebuilding  of  Cicero's  house,  but  which  Cicero  now  applied 
to  Clodius. 

32.  Pro  P.  SestiOf  delivered  in  B.C.  56,  is  a  splendid 
defence  of  Sestius  against  the  charge  of  violence  (vis);  Cicero 
dwells  more  upon  himself  and  the  party  of  the  optimates  than 
upon  the  case  of  his  client. 

33.  1)1  P.  Vatinium.  This  speech,  which  was  delivered 
in  the  same  year  as  that  for  Sestius,  was  also  closely  con- 
nected with  it,  for  Vatinius  had  come  forward  as  a  witness 
against  Sestius.,  ^ 

*  A  good  edition  of  this  speech,  with  a  very  full  commentary,  was 
pubhshed  by  A  W.  Zumpt:  Berlin,  1859. 


fi.c.  80-A.u  14.  J 


M.  TULLIUS  CICERO. 


69 


34.  Pro  M.  Ccelio,  also  delivered  in  B.C.  56,  is  a  speech  of 
great  interest  as  regards  the  state  of  morality  at  Rome ;  it  is 
full  of  cutting  wit,  especially  directed  against  the  notorious 
Clodius,  who  was  the  accuser  of  Cselius. 

35.  J)e  Provincils  ConsularibuSf  delivered  towards  the  end 
of  May,  B.C.  56 ;  the  object  was  to  induce  the  senate  to  pro- 
long to  Julius  Csesar  the  administration  of  Gaul. 

36.  Pro  L.  Balbo  belongs  to  the  same  year,  and  is  a  defence 
of  Balbus,  an  intimate  friend  of  Csesar,  against  the  charge  of 
having  illegally  assumed  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen. 

•  37.  In  L.  Pisonem  belongs  to  the  year  B.C.  55,  and  was 
delivered  in  the  senate.  This  speech  has  come  down  to  us 
in  a  mutilated  form,  the  beginning  being  wanting.  The 
descriptions  it  contains  are  sometimes  disgusting. 

38.  Pro  Cn,  Plancioy  delivered  in  B.C.  54,  is  a  defence  of 
Plancius  against  the  charge  of  bribery. 

'  39.  Pro  C,  Rabirio  Postumo  belongs  to  the  same  year, 
and  is  a  defence  of  Rabirius  against  the  charge  of  extortion, 
which  was  in  all  probability  only  too  well  founded. 

40.  Pro  T.  Annio  Miloiie,  a  defence  of  Milo,  who  had 
killed  Clodius.  •  The  speaker  tries  to  show  that  the  killing 
of  Clodius  was  justifiable  as  an  act  of  self-defence.  The 
event  took  place  in  B.C.  52,  but  the  speech  which  we  now 
have  is  not  the  one  that  was  actually  delivered  and 
failed  in  its  object,  but  one  which  was  afterwards  carefully 
composed  and  written.  It  is  one  of  the  finest  of  Cicero's 
speeches. 

.  41.  Pro  M.  Marcello  delivered,  in  B.C.  46,  in  the  senate, 
and  addressed  to  Julius  Csesar,  begging  him  to  allow  his  old 
opponent,  Marcellus,  to  return  to  Rome. 

42.  Pro  Q,  Ligarioj  delivered  in  the  same  year  and  with 
the  same  object,  for  Ligarius  too  was  living  in  exile,  and 
Cicero  implores  Csesar  to  permit  him  to  return  to  Rome. 

43.  Pro  Rege  BeiotarOj  delivered,  in  B.C.  45,  in  the  house 
of  Julius  Csesar,  in  defence  of  the  Galatian  king,  Deiotarus, 
who  was  charged  with  having  made  an  attempt  on  the  life 
of  Csesar  when  he  was  in  Asia  Minor. 

44-57.  Fourteen  Orationes  Philippiccef  deliyered  in  the 
years  B.C.  44  and  43.  They  are  speeches  against  M.  Antony, 
and  are  called  Philippicse  because  of  their  resemblance  to  the 


^^  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 

speeches  which  Demosthenes  had  delivered  at  Athens  against 
King  Philip  of  Macedonia. 

The  first  was  delivered  in  the  senate  on  the  2nd  of  Sep^ 
tember,  and  in  it  Cicero  excuses  himself  for  having  kept 
aloof  for  so  long  a  time  from  public  affaii-s,  but  complains  of 
an  attack  having  been  made  upon  him  by  M.  Antony.  When 
the  latter,  ofiended  at  this  remark,  made  a  speech  on  the 
19th,  in  which  he  reviewed  the  whole  political  career  of 
Cicero,  who  was  absent  from  the  senate  on  the  occasion, 
?-T^^  Prepared  a  reply,  which,  however,  he  did  not  publish 
tiU  M.  Antony  had  left  Eome,  though  it  is  composed  as  if  it 
had  been  deUvered  immediately  after  the  speech  of  Antony 
in  the  senate.     This  is  the  second  Philippic. 

The  third,  delivered  on  the  20th  of  December,  proposes 
that  the  senate  should  praise  and   thank   D.  Brutus  and 
Octavianus   for   having    opposed   the    consul    M.    Antony. 
This  was  done,  and  Cicero  on  the  same  dav  addressed  the 
people  (the  fourth  Philippic),  explaining  to  them  what  had 
been  decreed  by  the  senate.     The  fifth,  delivered  on  the  1st 
of  January,  b.c.  43,  proposes  to  the  senate  to  confer  honours 
upon  the  opponents  of  M.  Antony,  and  to  declare  him  a 
pubhc  enemy.     The  first  of  these  proposals  was  adopted,  but, 
instead  of  the  second,  it  was  resolved  that  an  attempt  should 
be  made  to  efiect  a  peaceful  reconciliation.     Cicero  on  the 
same  day  (the  4th  of  January)  communicated  the  resolution 
to  the   people   in  his   sixth   Philippic.      In   the   seventh, 
delivered  about  the  end  of  January,  Cicero  again  urges  the 
necessity  of  declaring  war  against  Antony.     The  advice  was 
taken ;  but  as  the  measures  adopted  seemed  insufficient  to 
Cicero,  he  dehvered  in  the  beginning  of  February  his  eighth 
Philippic,  blammg  the  measures  taken  and  proposing  more 
effective  and  definite  steps.     The  ninth  contains  fresh  attacks 
upon  Antony,  and  proposes  honourable  distinctions  for  Ser. 
Sulpicius,     The  tenth  proposes  to  the  senate  to  sanction  the 
proceedmgs  of  M.  Brutus  in  Macedonia  and  Greece.     The 
eleventh,  delivered  in  March,  proposes,  though  ineffectually, 
that  the  punishment  of  Dolabella,  who  had  put  to  death  C. 
Trebomus,  one  of  the  murderers  of  Caesar,  should  be  intrusted 
to  C.  Cassius,  likewise  one  of  the  murderera  of  Csesar.     It 
had  been  resolved  to  send  a  deputation  to  Antony,  of  which 


fi.c.  80-A.i).  14] 


M.  TtJLLitlS  ClCERd. 


n 


Cicero  was  to  be  a  member ;  but  in  the  twelfth  Philippic 
Cicero  opposes  the  sending  of  a  deputation,  and  tries  to  get 
out  of  it  himself.  In  the  thirteenth  speech,  delivered  on  the 
20th  of  March,  Cicero  defends  his  warlike  policy  against  M. 
Lepidus  and  Munatius  Plancus,  who  still  were  in  favour  of 
peace.  Lastly,  in  the  fourteenth  Philippic,  delivered  on  the 
22nd  of  April,  Cicero  proposes  a  great  public  thanksgiving 
for  the  victory  over  Antony  at  Fortim  Gallorum,  and 
honorary  distinctions  for  the  victorious  generals.* 

B.    RHETORICAL   WORKS. 

61.  Cicero's  own  experience  and  success  as  an  orator  quali- 
fied him,  above  all  others,  to  expound  the  nature  and  prin- 
ciples of  oratoiy.  He  did  not  indeed  neglect  the  study  of 
Greek  rhetoricians,  and  in  early  youth  he  even  compiled  a 
manual  of  the  art  from  Greek  works;  but  in  his  la|ier  years 
he  composed  independent  treatises  on  rhetoric,  not  io  much 
with  the  object  of  expounding  new  views,  as  of  putting  before 
the  world  his  own  opinions  as  to  what  was  required  of  an 
orator,  and  of  defending  the  style  of  his  own  oratoiy  against 
the  censure  of  opponents.  By  this  means  he  illustrated  and 
popularised  in  an  attractive  form  the  chief  principles  of 
rhetoric,  without  encumbering  them  with  the  subtle  techni- 
calities of  his  Greek  predecessors. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  extant  rhetorical  works  in 
the  order  of  time  in  which  they  were  composed : — 

1.  Rhetorica,  commonly  called  De  Invmtione,  because  the 
only  two  books  which  Cicero  wrote  treat  merely  on  the  matter 
or  subjects  of  oratory;  he  seems  himself  to  have  been  dis- 
satisfied with  the  work,  and  to  have  stopped  before  he  had 
finished  it.  The  performance  is,  in  fact,  an  unripe  produc- 
tion of  his  youth  compiled  from  various  sources,  and  where 
he  tries  to  correct  or  improve  them,  he  generally  anakes 

things  woree.  ^  . 

2.  Be  Oratorey  in  three  books,  was  written  in  B.C.  55,  in 
the  form  of  dialogues  among  the  most  illustrious  orators  of 
former  days,  supposed  to  have  taken  place  in  B.c.  9L     The 

*  There  are  many  editions  of  the  collected  speeches  of  Cicero;  tha 
best  published  in  this  country,  with  an  excellent  commentary,  is 
that  by  G,  Long,  in  4  vols. :  London,  1862. 


!l 


7^  SlSTO^r  OF  LATIN  tftfiRATURE.       [pERIOf)  IV/ 

first  book  discusses  the  education  of  an  orator;  the  second 
the  treatment  of  the  various  subjects;  and  the  thii-d  the  form 
and  delivery  of  speeches.  This  treatise  is  one  of  Cicero's 
best  and  most  perfect.  The  form  of  dialogues  imparts  to  it 
an  ea^e,  livelmess,  and  variety  which  a  continuous  exposi- 
tion of  rules  and  principles  never  could  have.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  the  different  speakers  only  express  Cicero's 
own  views.* 

3  Brutus  or  Be  Claris  Orafonbus,  written  in  B.C.  46,  ia 
a  valuable  histoiy  of  Roman  oratory;  it  is  rich  in  historical 
matenaJs  and  delineations  of  historical  characters,  at  the  same 
time  showing  the  course  of  training  through  which  Cicero 
himself  had  parsed.  It  is  likewise  composed  in  the  form  of 
a  dialogue. 

4  Orat(^  ad  M.  Brutum,  describes  what  Cicero  considered 
tne  beau  ideal  of  an  orator ;  but  the  work  is  remarkable  less 
lor  its  completeness  than  for  the  value  of  many  discussions 
and  observations.     Its  composition  also  belongs  to  the  year 

T>  ^' Aa'"''^^^/^^  Oratories,  or  Be  Partitione  Oratoria,  written 
B.C  4b  or  45,  IS  a  brief  summary  of  the  whole  domain  of 
oratory  in  the  form  of  questions  and  answers;  it  is,  in  fact, 
a  sort  of  dry  catechism,  of  which  the  questions  are  put  by 
Cicero  s  son,  Marcus.  ^         ^ 

6.  To^zca,  written,  in  B.C.  44,  on  board  ship,  while  Cicero 
was  sailing  towards  Greece.  It  is  an  explanation  of  the 
lopica  of  Anstotle,  i.e.,  the  invention  of  arguments,  written 
at  the  request  of  C.  Trebatius,  who  had  often  told  Cicero  that 
he  did  not  understand  the  Topica  of  Aristotle.  Boethius 
wrote  a  commentary  on  Cicero's  Topica,  of  which  six  books 
aie  stili  extant. 

iJ'  P^PP^'f^  aenere  Oralorum,  is  properly  a  preface  or 
introduction  to  a  translation  of  the  speeches  of  Demosthenes 

f^»lf  •  ^?^  ^^?  ^S^^^*  Ctesiphon.  The  translation 
iteelf  IS  lost  The  introduction  explaining  the  object  of 
Ciceros  undertaking  also  discusses  the  Attic  and  Asiatic 
style  of  oratory.    It  was  written  in  b.c.  44. 


».C.  8t>-A.D.  14.] 


M.   TtJLLIUS  CICERO. 


73 


C.    PHILOSOPHICAL  WORKS. 

62.  Cicero  himself  in  his  work  Be  Bivinatione  enumerates 
his  philosophical  treatises.  The  following  is  a  list  of  those 
still  extant  in  the  chronological  order  of  their  publica- 
tion:— 

1.  Be  Be  Publica,  was  commenced  in  B.C.  54,  and  published 
three  years  later,  just  before  his  departure,  for  Cilicia.  The 
whole  work  consisted  of  six  books,  of  which  scarcely  one- 
third  has  been  preserved,  and  even  that  in  a  very  mutilated 
form.  It  was  composed  in  the  form  of  dialogues  supposed  to 
have  taken  place  in  B.c.  129,  between  the  younger  Africanus, 
Lselius,  and  others.  In  composing  this  work,  Cicero  made 
use  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  Poly  bins,  Theophrastus,  and  others, 
but  also  introduced  his  own  political  experiences.  A  portion 
of  the  sixth  book,  the  Somnium  ScipioniSy  had  been  preserved 
by  Macrobius,  but  the  rest  was  not  discovered  and  published 
till  1822  by  Angelo  Mai,  from  a  Vatican  palimpsest."'^ 

2.  Be  LegibuSy  in  six  books,  was  probably  commenced  in 
B.C.  52,  immediately  after  the  publication  of  Be  Be  Bublica, 
to  which  it  forms  a  natural  sequel.  It  was,  however,  not 
completed  at  once,  but  was  resumed  in  b.c.  46,  nor  was  it 
finished  even  then.  Cicero  himself  does  not  appear  to  have 
published  the  work,  because  he  does  not  mention  it  anywhere, 
and  also  because  the  fii-st  book  contains  no  introduction, 
which  the  author  would  certainly  have  added,  if  he  himself 
had  published  it.  Of  the  original  six  books,  we  have  only  the 
first  thi-ee,  and  some  fragments  of  the  rest;  but  even  the 
first  three  are  not  without  gaps.  The  first  book,  which  is 
written  with  great  care,  but  is  nevertheless  somewhat  super- 
ficial and  wanting  in  clearness,  treats  of  natural  law;  the 
second  treats  of  the  making  of  laws  and  of  the  jus  sacrum, 
and  successfully  imitates  the  language  of  the  ancient  laws. 
The  third  treats  de  magistratibus ;  the  fourth  was  to  have 
dealt  with  the  rights  of  magistrates;  the  fifth  perhaps  de 
jure  publico ;  and  the  sixth  de  jure  civili.  The  work,  like 
his  other  philosophical  treatises,  is  composed  in  the  form 

*  The  best  editions  of  what  remains  of  this  work  are  those  of  C. 
F.  Hemrich:  Bonn,  1823;  and  of  F.  Osann:  Gdttingen,  1847. 


n 


flISTORY  OP  tATIlT  LITERATURE.        [pERIOD  IV. 


of  dialogues,  and  seems  to  have  been  based  on  Plato  and 
Chrysippus.* 

3.  Paradoxa  was  composed  in  April,  B.C.  46,  before  the 
news  of  Cato's  death  had  reached  Kome.  This  little  treatise 
is  a  rhetorical  explanation  of  six  favourite  paradoxes  of  the 
Stoics,  interspersed  with  examples  from  contemporary  history 
and  covert  attacks  upon  Crassus,  Hortensius,  and  LucuUus, 
and  vehement  declamation  against  Clodius. 

4.  ConsohtiOy  or  De  Luctu  Minuendo,  was  composed  in 
B.C.  45,  soon  after  the  death  of  his  beloved  daughter,  Tullia, 
as  a  consolation  to  himself.  He  is  said  to  have  closely  fol- 
lowed in  its  composition  the  work  of  the  Academician 
Grantor,  entitled  ttc/jJ  ney^ovt.  A  few  fragments  are  all  that 
we  possess  of  it. 

5.  Hortensius,  or  De  Philosophiay  was  a  dialogue  in  praise 
of  philosophy,  which  Hortensius  was  represented  as  disparaging 
in  comparison  with  eloquence.  The  work  was  evidently 
written  with  the  intention  of  recommending  philosophical 
studies  to  the  Eomans.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  this  work, 
which  is  inordinately  praised  by  St.  Augustin,  are  now 
extant. 

6.  De  Finibus  Bonorum  et  Malorumy  in  five  books,  was  com- 
posed during  the  first  half  of  the  year  b.c.  45,  and  dedicated 
to  Brutus.  It  is  preserved  entire,  and  the  care  with  which 
it  has  been  composed  entitles  it  to  be  regarded  as  the  best  of 
Cicero's  philosophical  works.  It  contains  a  comparison  of 
the  different  Greek  schools  in  regard  to  their  views  as  to  the 
greatest  good  and  the  greatest  evil.  It  thus  treats  of  the 
principal  points  of  practical  philosophy,  as  the  Academica 
which  he  wrote  afterwards  treats  of  theoretical  philosophy. 
The  whole  work  is  divided  into  three  dialogues,  in  which 
Cicero  himself  takes  the  principal  part.  The  other  inter- 
locutors are  men  recently  deceased.  In  the  first  dialogue, 
forming  the  first  and  second  books,  L.  Manlius  Torquatus 
expounds  the  views  of  the  Epicureans,  which  Cicero  in  the 
second  endeavours  to  confute.  In  the  second  dialogue, 
which  occupies  the  third  and  fourth  books,  M.  Porcius  Cato 
explains  the  views  of  the  Stoics,  to  which  Cicero,  in  the 

♦  The  best  editions  are  those  of  Goerenz;  Leipzig,  1803;  and  of 
Feldhugel:  Zeiz,  1852,  in  2  vols. 


t.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  M.   TtJLLIUS  CICERO. 


75 


fourth  book,  replies,  showing  that  it  differs  in  no  essential 
point  from  the  doctrine  of  Antiochus  of  Ascalon.  In  the 
third  dialogue,  M.  Pupius  Piso  explains  the  theories  of 
the  Academics  and  Peripatetics.  In  composing  this  treatise, 
Cicero  does  not  seem  to  have  consulted  the  works  of  Aris- 
totle and  Epicurus  themselves,  but  only  those  of  their  more 
recent  followers.* 

7.  Academica. — The  right  understanding  of  this  work 
requires  some  knowledge  of  the  circumstances  imder  which 
it  was  composed  in  B.C.  45.  Cicero  at  first  wrote  it  in  two 
books,  entitled  Catulus  and  Lwcullus,  between  whom,  together 
with  Cicero  and  Hortensius,  the  dialogue  was  carried  on. 
Atticus,  who  knew  of  this  an-angement,  wrote  to  Cicero  that 
Varro  felt  hurt  that  none  of  Cicero's  works  had  ever  been 
dedicated  to  him.  Upon  this  Cicero  remodelled  the  whole, 
and  divided  it  into  four  books,  which  he  dedicated  to  Varro. 
In  this  second  edition  the  author  introduced  Varro  expound- 
ing the  views  of  Antiochus  of  Ascalon,  a  follower  of  the  Old 
Academy,  while  he  himself  tried  to  prove  the  superiority  of  the 
New  Academy  as  represented  by  Pliilo.  The  second  book  of 
the  first  edition  (the  LucuUus),  of  which  Atticus  had  obtained 
a  copy  before  Cicero  had  made  up  his  mind  to  remodel  it, 
is  still  extant;  of  the  second  edition,  called  Academica  Pos- 
teriora,  we  possess  the  first  part  of  the  first  book  and  some 
fmgments.  The  Lucullas  contains  the  theories  of  Antiochus 
and  Philo,  while  the  Catulus  probably  gave  those,  of  Carneades, 
together  with  a  general  statement  of  the  differences  between 
the  Old  and  the  New  Academy.  The  beginning  of  the  second 
edition  gives  a  general  survey  of  the  history  of  philosophy 
from  Socrates  to  Arcesilas,  the  predecessor  of  Carneades  and 
Philo.  Cicero  himself  preferred  the  system  of  the  Academics, 
and  his  Academica  are  to  us  the  chief  source  of  information 
about  that  school  of  philosophy.! 

8.  Tuscularuje  Bisputationes,  in  five  books,  were  composed 
during  the  years  B.C.  45  and  44,  and  derive  their  name  from 
the  fact  that  the  discussions  are  represented  as  having  taken 


6> 


*  The  best  editions  of  De  Finlhus  are  those  of  Goerenz:  Leipzig, 
1813;  and  of  Madvig:  Copenhagen,  1839. 

f  The  best  editions  are  those  of  Goerenz,  1810;  and  Orelli,  Zurich, 
1827. 


1 

.1 

I'lv! 


w 


pi 

1  ''-i . 


'i 


76  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 

place  in  Cicero's  villa,  near  Tiisciilum,  where  they  were  also 
written  down.  Cicero  himself  gives  iis  an  axjcount  of  the 
contents  of  the  five  books;  the  first  treats  de  contemnenda 
morte;  the  second  de  tolerando  dolore;  the  third  de  (Bgritvdine 
/ewten^a;  the  fourth  de  reliquis  animi  perturhationibus ;  and 
the  fifth  tries  to  show  that  virtue  itself  suffices  to  insure 
happiness.* 

■  9.  TimcBus,  a  free  translation  of  Plato's  dialogue  of  the 
same  name;  it  was  made  after  the  completion  of  the  Aca- 
demica.  Only  one  considerable  fragment,  which  is  printed 
in  the  fourth  volume  of  Orelli's  edition  of  Cicero's  works, 
IS  extant,  and  shows  how  careless  the  translator  was  in  ren- 
dering the  thoughts  of  the  original. 

•  ^^'  '^aI  ^^^'^'^^  Deorum,  in  three  books,  was  commenced 
m  B.C.  45,  and  completed  in  the  following  year.  The  work 
IS  dedicated  to  M.  Brutus,  and  the  dialogue  is  supposed  to 
hai^e^^ken  place  during  the  Feri^  Latinse,  about  the  year 
?;%'"•,.  ^'  "^elleius  represents  the  views  of  the  Epicureans, 
Q.  Lucdius  Balbus  those  of  the  Stoics,  and  C.  Aurelius  Cotta 
those  of  the  Academics.  We  have  here  the  speculations  of 
the  principal  philosophical  schools  on  the  existence  and 
attributes  of  the  gods  in  beautiful  Latin.  But,  unfortunately, 
Cicero,  in  exhibiting  the  views  of  the  various  schools,  did 
not  consult  the  works  of  the  founders  themselves,  but  only 
those  of  their  late  followers,  a  circumstance  which  diminishes 
the  value  of  the  work.t 

11.  Cato  Major,  or  De  Seoiectute,  addressed  to  Atticus,  was 
written  in  B.C.  44.  It  is  meant  to  be  a  dialogue,  supposed 
to  have  taken  place  in  b.c.  150,  but  is  in  reality  rather  a 
lecture  m  praise  of  old  age.  The  materials  Cicero  derived 
from  Greek  authors,  but  the  delineation  of  Cato's  character 
IS  original  and  made  with  great  care.  J 

^!\^^^^1?''^^'^^'  ^  ^^^  ^^^^^'  ^s  properly  the  comple- 
ment to  De  Natura  Deorum,  treating  of  the  revelations  made 

Kl^l^;%:f^^':'  ^^^  *^^^^  ^^  ^-  ^^^^-^  J-->  ^^^a;  and  K. 
thL^'ellilf  ^riin^^^^^^  ^.^*-'  '^  *^-*  ^y  G-  F-  Schumann, 

J  "so^^XhrL^^lK^^???"  ""^^^'f  ^**^«  ^°«k'  *h«  best  are  those  of 
J.  bommerbrodt,  fifth  edition:  Berlin;  and  of  G.  Long,  London. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14] 


M.    TULLIUS  CICERO. 


77 


by  the  gods  and  their  apprehension  by  man.  It  was  pub- 
lished, in  B.C.  44,  after  the  murder  of  Caesar.  •  It  is  written 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  carried  on  between  Cicero  and  his 
brother,  Quintus,  at  the  villa  near  Tusculum.  The  first 
book  contains  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics  regarding  divina- 
tion, and  the  second  those  of  the  Academics.  In  dealing 
with  this  subject,  Cicero,  who  was  himself  free  from  super- 
stition, treats  the  popular  superstitions  and  the  jwlitical 
institutions  connected  with  them  with  the  utmost  delicacy 

and  caution.*  ^     -         }> 

13.  De  Faio,  in  a  single  book,  forms  the  conclusion  ot 
Cicero's  works  on  theological  subjects,  and  was  likewise 
written  in  B.C.  44.  In  it  Cicero  combats  the  views  of  the 
Stoics  about  fate  or  predestination.  The  book  has  come 
down  to  us  in  a  very  mutilated  form.  •  The  style  is  some- 
what careless,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  Cicero  may  not 
have  finally  revised  it  for  publication.  •    • 

•  14.  Loilius  or  Be  ^mici^ia,' dedicated  to  Atticus,  was 
written  in  B.C.  44,  after  the  Cato  Major.  The  dialogue  is 
carried  on  between  the  younger  Lselius  and  his  two  sons-in- 
law,  C.  Fannius  and  Q.  Mucins  Scsevola,  soon  after  the 
death  (b.c.  129)  of  the  younger  Africanus,  the  friend  of 
Lselius.  Many  of  the  ideas  are  taken  from  Greek  authors, 
but  the  style  is  animated,  and  the  sentiments  expressed  are 

sound  and  practical.! 

15.  De  Gloria^  in  two  books,  was  finished  about  the  end 
of  July,  B.C.  44.  As  we  have  scarcely  any  fragments  of  this 
work,  nothing  can  be  said  of  its  character. 

16.  i>e  Officiis,  in  three  books,  is  addressed  to  Cicero's  son, 
Marcus,  who  was  at  that  time  studying  at  Athens.  This 
work  too  was  written  in  B.C.  44,  and,  like  all  the  other  pro- 
ductions of  this  period,  was  composed  in  great  haste. .  As  this 
work  was  intended  for  instruction  alone,  he  did  not  write  it 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  but  directly  enunciates  the  views 
which  he  thinks  to  be  the  correct  ones.  The  authorities  he 
follows  are  chiefly  the  Stoics.     His  teaching  is  enlivened  by 

♦  The  best  editions  are  those  of  J.  J.  Hottinger:  Leipzig,  1793; 

and  L.  Giese:  Leipzig,  1829.  ^'        ^   ^      i,    ^    t   •     •     iqok 

t  The  best  editions  are  those  of  A.  G.  Gemhard:  Leipzig,  lb25j 
and  C.  W.  Nauck,  with  a  German  commentary:  Berlin,  1867. 


Ri 


Mil 


M 

n 

:.'* 


75  HISTORY   OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  IV. 

the  introduction  of  numerous  examples  from  Roman  history. 
The  point  of  view  from  which  Cicero  wrote  this  work  is  that 
of  a  practical  politician,  in  consequence  of  which  he  rises  little 
above  the  conventional  ideas  of  a  Roman.* 

17.  i>e  Virtutibm.—This  book,  if  it  ever  existed  as  an 
independent  work,  must  have  been  a  kind  of  supplement  to 
the  De  Officiis,  and  must  have  been  composed  shortly  before 
or  after  it. 

The  date  of  the  following  works  on  philosophical  subjects 
cannot  be  detei-mined,  and  only  fragments  of  them  have  come 
down  to  us. 

18.  A  translation  of  Xenophon's  CEconomicics,  in  three 
books,  which  Cicero  seems  to  have  made  when  a  youn^^  man 
of  about  twenty.  ^ 

19.  A  translation  of  Plato's  Protagoras,  which  likewise 
seems  to  have  been  a  youthful  production. 

20.  De  Auguriis.—OHhis  work  the  gi-ammarian,  Charisius 
quotes  three  words.     This  is  all  we  know  about  it,  but  it 
may  be  conjectured  that  Cicero  wrote  it  after  B.C.  51   when 
he  was  elected  augur.  ' 

D.    WORKS    ON   JURISPRUDENCE   AND    HISTORY. 

63.  We  know  that  Cicero  devoted  much  attention  to  the 
study  of  the  law,  but  as  a  means  to  an  end  rather  than  as  a 
distmct  profession,  whence  his  knowledge,  though  extensive 
cannot  be  compared  to  that  of  men  like  Aquilius  Gallus  or 
Ser.  Sulpicius  Rufus.  He  seems  to  have  lacked  the  power  of 
givmg  sharp  and  accurate  definitions  so  indispensable  to  a 
lawyer.  Nevertheless,  however,  he  tried  his  hand  in  this 
department  also,  and  wrote  a  work  De  Jure  Civili  in  Artem 
Eedigendo,  which  may  originally  have  been  intended  to  form 
part  of  De  Legibus,  but  was  published  separately,  and  is  now 
lost. 

Cicero  also  attempted  to  write  history,  and  seems  to  have 
thought  that,  if  he  persevered,  he  might  become  an  eminent  his- 
torian. He  possessed,  indeed,  an  immense  amount  of  histori- 
cal knowledge,  but  his  oratorical  powers,  and  his  inabiUty  to 

*  The  bestmodem  editions  are  those  of  C.  Beier:  Leipzig,  1820 

Sil   ik'?  ^-  7^Ai^-  ^'  ^^"^rd:  Leipzig,  1811;  and  0.  Heine: 
lierlm,  looy,  third  edition. 


E.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  CICERO's   CORRESPONDENCE. 


79 


look  at  things  objectively,  would  have  proved  a  gi*eat  hin- 
drance. It  is  possible,  however,  that,  if  he  had  lived  longer, 
he  might  have  become  a  successful  historian.  As  it  is  he 
wrote  historical  works  only  on  his  own  consulship.  One 
was  a  Comm&iitarius  Consulatus  JSuiy  which  was  written  in 
B.C.  60,  in  Greek;  we  know  that  about  the  same  time  he 
was  engaged  upon  a  Latin  work  on  the  same  subject. 
Another  historical  work,  entitled  Anecdota  was  begun  in 
B.C.  59,  but  not  published  till  after  his  death.  It  seems  to 
have  been  an  apology  for  or  defence  of  the  policy  he  had 
pursued  through  life.  Lastly,  there  is  mention  of  a  work 
called  Miranda.* 

E.    CICERO's   CORRESPONDENCE.; 

64.  During  the  most  important  period  of  his  life,  Cicero 
kept  up  an  active  correspondence  with  Atticus  and  a  large 
circle  of  literary  and  political  friends;  including  ninety 
letters  which  were  addressed  to  Cicero,  we  still  possess  864, 
the  earliest  belonging  to  the  year  B.C.  68,  and  the  latest  to 
the  last  year  of  his  life.  Unfortunately,  there  is  among 
them  not  one  written  during  his  consulship.  These  letters 
are  to  us  an  inexhaustible  mine  of  information  about  the 
history  of  the  time,  and  as  such,  perhaps,  more  valuable  than 
all  his  speeches.  Many  of  them  were  written  to  his  most 
intimate  friends,  and  in  them  he  opened  his  heart  most  un- 
reservedly, probably  never  dreaming  that  they  would  be 
published.  Cicero  himself  never  collected  them,  and  still 
less  did  he  intend  to  make  them  public,  although  some  of 
his  friends  seem  to  have  suggested  the  desirability  of  it.  But 
after  his  deat^h,  when  his  authority  was  ever  increasing  in 
the  schools  of  the  rhetoricians,  his  letters  were  eagerly  col- 
lected, and  it  appears  that,  in  the  year  b.c.  24,  Cornelius 
Nepos  already  knew  of  the  16  volurnina  (books)  of  letters 
to  Atticus.  There  existed  besides  this  other  large  collec- 
tions, of  which  only  one,  commonly  called  Ad  FamUiares,  has 
come  down  to  our  time. 

The  collection  of  letters  Ad  Familiares  consists  of  sixteen 
books,  and  extends  over  the  period  from  b.c.  63  until  the 

*  The  few  fragments  of  these  works  are  collected  by  Orelli  in  the 
last  volume  of  his  edition  of  Cicero. 


80  HISTORY  OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 

year  of  Cicero's  death.  They  are  arranged  according  to  the 
persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  with  the  exception  of 
book  13;  but  even  where  a  series  of  letters  addressed  to 
the  same  person  is  given  they  are  not  arranged  in  chi'ono- 
logical  order.  This  collection  seems  to  have  been  made  by 
Cicero's  freedman,  Tii'o,  immediately  after  his  death,  and 
before  other  more  voluminous  collections  which  are  now  lost 
were  made.* 

The  collection  of  letters  Ad  Atticum,  in  sixteen  books, 
extends  over  the  period  from  B.C.  68  till  a  few  months  before 
Cicero's  death.  In  them  Cicero  speaks  as  frankly  and  openly 
as  if  he  were  talking  to  himself,  and  as  we  do  not  possess 
the  letters  of  Atticus  to  which  Cicero  refers,  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  understand  what  is  alluded  to.  The  order  in  wltich 
the  letters  are  printed  is  not  altogether  chronologically  correct. 
Atticus  had  no  doubt  sanctioned  their  publication,  thouf^h 
they  did  not  appear  till  after  his  death.  '^ 

There  is  a  third  collection  of  letters.  Ad  Quintum  Fratrem, 
m  three  books,  extending  over  six  years,  from  B.C.  60  to 
B.C.  54. 

A  fourth  collection,  lastly,  consists  of  a  cm-respondence 
between  Cicero  and  M.  Brutus,  in  two  books.  The  first  con- 
tains eighteen  lettei-s;  eleven  of  them  were  written  by  Cicero 
to  Brutus,  six  by.  Brutus  to  Cicero,  and  one  by  Brutus  to 
Atticus.  The  second  book,  first  discovered  and  published  in 
Germany,  by  Cratander,  contains  eight  letters,  five  from 
Cicero  to  Brutus,  and  three  from  Bnitus  to  Cicero.  All  of 
them  were  written  after  the  murder  of  C^sar.  Their  genuine- 
ness has  been  doubted  by  some  scholars,  but  without  suffi- 
cient reasons. 

F.    POETICAL   WORKS   OF   CICERO. 

65.  Cicero  seems  to  have  acquired  a  taste  for  poetry  when 
he  studied  under  the  poet  Archias.  But  his  attempts  in 
this  direction  were  little  more  than  youthful  exercises,  which 
beyond  their  versification,  in  which  Cicero  must  have  had 

*  This  collection  of  letters  has  often  been  published;  the  commen- 
tary of  P.  Manutius,  repubhshed  by  C.  G.  Richter:  Leipzig,  in  two 
vols  13  still  very  useful  Manutius  also  published  a  commentary 
on  the  letters  to  Atticus:  Venice,  1567. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]        CICERO  S    POETICAL   WORKS. 


81 


great  facility,  were  of  little  value,  and  certainly  did  not 
increase  his  reputation.  The  following  poetical  productions 
are  mentioned,  but  we  possess  only  fragments  of  them:  (1)  A 
translation  of  about  forty-four  lines  of  Homer  in  hexameters; 

(2)  a  translation   of  Aratus   Phcenomena  and  Biosemeia  ; 

(3)  AlcyoneSj  a  poem,  of  which  scarcely  two  lines  remain, 
quoted  by  Nonius;  (4)  a  poem,  called  Linion,  four  lines  of 
which,  in  hexameter,  are  quoted  by  Suetonius;  (5)  Marius, 
an  epic  poem  in  hexameters,  which  was  written  in  B.C.  82.  A 
spirited  fragment  of  it  is  quoted  in  the  Be  Divinatione,  con- 
sisting of  thirteen  hexameter  lines;  (6)  I)e  meo  Consulatu, 
in  three  books,  composed  in  B.C.  60,  in  hexameter  lines.  A 
rather  long  fragment  of  it  is  quoted  in  the  De  Divinatione; 
(7)  JDe  7neis  Temporihus,  in  three  books,  written  about  B.C. 
55,  which  contained  an  account  of  his  exile,  his  sufierings, 
and  his  recall.  Four  lines  of  it  are  all  that  remain  of  this 
poem;  (8)  in  B.C.  43  Cicero  wrote  a  eulogistic  poem  on  Julius 
Ciesar  {Foema  ad  Ccesarem).  The  extant  fragments  of  these 
and  other  works  are  collected  in  the  last  volume  of  Orelli'a 
edition  of  Cicero. 

66.  In  connection  with  Cicero  we  may  here  mention  his 
younger  brother,  Quintus,  and  his  freedman,  Tiro,  both  of 
whom  were  men  of  some  literary  talent. 

1.  Q.  Tullius  Cicero,  was  born  in  B.C.  102,  served  as  legate 
under  Pompey  in  Sardinia,  under  Caesar  in  Gaul  and  Britain, 
and  under  his  brother  in  Cilicia.  He  was  killed  during  the 
proscription,  in  B.C.  43.  He  took  great  interest  in  history 
and  poetry,  and  seems  to  have  had  the  same  facility  in  com- 
position as  his  brother.  He  wrote  an  historical  work,  called 
Annales,  and  a  number  of  tragedies  which,  however,  may 
have  been  mere  translations  from  the  Greek. 

2.  M.  Tullius  Tiro,  Cicero's  freedman  and  friend,  survived 
his  patron  for  a  long  time,  and  showed  his  attachment  to 
him  by  writing  his  biography  in  at  least  four  books,  and  by 
publishing  his  letters  and  witty  sayings  (joci).  But  he  also 
wrote  independent  works  of  an  encyclopaedic  and  gram- 
matical character,  and  even  seems  to  have  composed  poetiy ; 
but  he  gained  particular  reputation  by  his  invention  of  a 
kind  of  stenography,  which  was  celebrated  under  the  name 
of  I^^otce  Tironiance. 


82  HISTORY  OP  LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 

67.  Simultaneously  with  the  men  already  mentioned  who, 
besides  their  compositions  in  prose,  also  wrote  poetry,  there 
appeared  three  men,  the  first  of  whom  introduced  into  litera- 
ture a  new  species  of  poetry,  viz. — 

1.  Decimus  Laberius,  a  Roman  eques,  bom  in  b.c.  105, 
at  Rome.     He  made  the  mimes  a  regular  branch  of  comic 
literature,  and  in  them   combined  all  the  older  forms   of 
comedy— the  Greek  palliatse,  the  Roman  togatse,  and  the 
licentiousness  of  the  atellanae.      We  still  know  the  titles, 
and  possess  fragments  of  a  great  many  of  his  mimes,  from 
which  we  see  that  their  subjects  were  taken  from  common 
life,  and  that  the  language  was  frequently  that  of  the  lowest 
populace,  although  Laberius  was  himself  well  acquainted 
with   Greek  culture  and  refinement.     Csesar  demanded  of 
him  that  he  should  appear  on  the  stage  as  an  actor  in  one 
of  his  own  mimes.     As  by  complying  with  this  demand  he 
forfeited  his  rights  not  only  of  an  eques,  but  even  of  a  Roman 
citizen,  he  bitterly  complains  of  it  in  the  interesting  prolocrue 
preserved  by  Macrobius.     Laberius  died  at  Puteoli,  in  the 
tenth  month  after  the  murder  of  Caesar,  i.e.,  towards  the  end 
of  B.C.  43.     He  seems  to  have  been  unsparing  in  his  attacks 
upon  men  and  manners,  for  which  Csesar  disliked  him.* 
^    2.  M.  Furius  Bibaculus,  of  Cremona,  bom  in  b.c.  103,  wrote 
invective  jwems  in  iambics,  especially  against  those  who  were 
in  favour  of  a  monarchical  government.     It  may  be  that  the 
Aljnnus,  whom  Horace  ridicules  for  his  high-flown  and  bom- 
bastic style,  is  no  other  than  Bibaculus.      He  is  further 
mentioned  as  the  author  of  Lucuhrationes,  and  was  perhaps 
the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  the  Gallic  war.f 

3.  P.  Syrus,  a  freedman  of  Syrian  origin,  distinjruished 
himself  as  a  writer  of  mimes,  and,  in  B.C.  45,  gained  a 
victory  by  his  mimes  over  all  his  competitors,  even  over 
Laberius.  On  one  occasion  Cicero  witnessed  one  of  his  per- 
formances. His  mimes  were  celebrated  for  their  richness  in 
moral  maxims  (sententice).  His  mimes  themselves  are  lost, 
but  a  collection  of  sententice  made  from  them  is  still  extant! 

7- J"/  ^«  ^^g^ients  of  Laberius  are  collected  in  0.  Ribbeck's  Comic. 
•Lat.  Reliquice,  p.  237,  foil. 

335  ^U  ^""^^^^^  ^^  collected  in  Weicherfs  Poet.  lat.  Reli^i.,  p. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


C.   JULIUS   CiESAR. 


83 


This  collection,  made  for  educational  purposes,  afte^-wai-ds 
became  a  very  popular  school-book;  it  consists  of  about 
800  sententice,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  they  are  all 
genuine  productions  of  Syrus.* 

B.  The  Period  from  Cicero*s  Consulship  to  His  Death. 

(From  b.c  63  to  b.c  43.) 

68.  The  most  prominent  figure  during  this  period  is,  next 
to  Cicero,  C.  Julius  Caesar.  But,  brief  as  it  is,  this  period 
brings  before  us  two  distinct  generations  of  writers,  the 
earlier  one  embracing,  besides  Caesar,  such  men  as  Cor- 
nelius Nepos,  Hirtius,  Oppius,  Lucretius,  and  others;  while 
the  later  generation  consists  of  those  whose  lives  fell  upon 
the  stormy  times  of  the  civil  war  between  Ctesafr  and  Pompey. 
We  shall  first  consider  the  state  of  literature  during  the  earlier 
generation. 

1.  C.  Julius  CaBSar,  bom  on  the  12th  of  July,  B.C.  100, 
was  the  son  of  C.  Caesar  and  the  excellent  Aurelia.  He  lost 
his  father  at  the  age  of  16,  and  being  connected  with  Marius, 
the  great  opponent  of  Sulla,  his  life  was  in  danger.  He  made 
his  first  campaign  in  B.C.  80,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
the  taking  of  Mitylene.  He  began  his  career  as  an  orator 
and  politician  by  accusations  against  members  of  the  nobility 
for  extortion  in  the  provinces.  In  B.C.  75  he  proceeded  to 
Rhodes  to  make  himself  more  perfect  as  an  orator  by  study- 
ing under  ApoUonius  Molo.  In  B.C.  67  he  obtained  the 
office  of  quaestor  in  Further  Spain,  two  years  later  the 
sedileship,  and,  in  B.C.  63,  he  became  pontifex  maximus. 
He  was  elected  consul,  b.c.  59,  for  having  the  year  before 
formed  the  first  triumvirate  with  Pompey  and  Crassus,  and 
exerted  all  his  powers  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
popular  party.  During  the  period  from  b.c.  58  to  b.c.  50 
he  had  as  pro-consul  the  administration  of  Gaul,  during  which 
he  subdued  the  whole  of  that  country,  and  secured  to  himself 
the  attachment  of  his  army,  for  he  knew  only  too  well  what 
machinations  were  going  on  at  Rome.  With  this  ai-my  he 
raised  himself  to  the  supreme  power  in  the  republic,  and 

*  The  fragments  of  Syrus,  together  with  the  Sententice,  are  col- 
lected in  0.  Ribbeck's  Com.  Lat.  Reliquice,  p.  258,  foil.,  whfer^  he  ig 
VJalled  P,  P\iblilius  Lochius  Syrus. 


84 


HISTORY   OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 


with  the  title  of  dictator  became  the  sovereign  of  the  state; 
but  a  formidable  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  and  he 
was  killed  in  the  senate  house  on  the  15th  of  March,  b.c.  44. 

69.  Julius  Caesar  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  that  history- 
knows  of.  He  was  not  more  distinguished  as  a  general  than  he 
was  as  an  orator  and  statesman.  Nature  had  destined  him  to 
be  the  ruler  of  a  great  state  by  the  clearness  of  his  intellect, 
the  energy  of  his  will,  and  the  perseverance  with  which  he 
pursued  the  object  he  had  set  before  himself.  As  an  orator 
he  was  inferior  only  to  Cicero,  yet  he  valued  that  power  only  so 
far  as  it  was  to  him  a  means  of  accomplishing  certain  political 
objects.  Amid  all  his  vast  undertakings  he  found  time  even 
to  think  and  write  on  gi-ammatical  subjects  and  on  astronomy. 
The  poetical  productions  ascribed  to  him  were  probably  not 
of  much  value,  and  belonged  chiefly  to  his  earlier  years. 

Of  his  speeches,  some  of  which  were  published,  only  frag- 
ments remain.*  The  same  is  the  case  of  his  grammatical 
work,  De  Analogia,  in  two  books,  which  he  wrote  during 
his  pro-consulship  of  Gaul  and  dedicated  to  Cicero.  He  is 
said  to  have  composed  it  while  crossing  the  Alps  from  Cis- 
alpine to  Transalpine  Gaul.f 

As  to  his  astronomical  work,  De  Astris,  which  is  often 
refeiTed  to,  it  was  probably  written  in  connection  with  his 
reform  of  the  calendar,  perhaps  not  by  himself,  but  by  some 
one  whom  he  had  commissioned  to  compose  it,  and  who 
afterwards  published  it  under  Caesar's  name. 

After  the  death  of  Cato  at  Utica,  Cicero  published  an  eulogy 
on  him,  which  irritated  Caesar  so  much  that  he  replied  to  it 
in  a  work  of  two  books  entitled  Anticato  or  Anticatones,  in 
which  he  flattered  Cicero,  but  treated  Cato,  who  was  looked 
upon  by  his  partisans  as  a  martyr  for  his  republican  opinions, 
as  a  rash  and  ridiculous  person.  Caesar  had  no  doubt  a  very 
active  correspondence  with  the  leading  men  of  his  time, 
and  many  of  his  lettera  were  collected  after  his  death  and 
published,  but  they  are  now  lost.  | 

*  For  the  remains  of  his  oratory,  see  Meyer's  Orat.  Bom.  Franm.^ 
p.  408,  foil. 

t  The  remains  of  this  work  have  been  collected  by  Nipperdey  in 
his  edition  of  Caesar,  p.  753,  foil. 

X  Caesar's  epistolary  remains  have  been  collected  by  Nipperdey, 
Lc.  p.  7G6,  foil. 


t.t.  fiO-A.n.  14] 


tf.   JULIUS  C^SAR. 


89 


70.  The  only  works  of  Csesar  which  have  come  do\vn  to 

ns  in  a  state  of  completeness  are — 

l.Co7?iwien<anic?e6e//o6^a^^ico,insevenbooks,  containing  the 

history  of  the  first  seven  years  of  his  Gallic  war;  they  were 
published,  in  B.C.  51,  after  the  termination  of  the  war.  These 
oommentarii  are  a  kind  of  memoir,  being  neither  a  carefully 
composed  history  nor  the  mere  jottings  of  a  journal  or  diary; 
but  although  their  form  is  simple  and  artless,  yet  every  ex- 
pression is  carefully  weighed.  The  author,  without  ever  making 
an  untrue  statement,  contrives  to  arrange  the  facts  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  place  himself  in  a  favourable  light;  and  where 
this  is  not  feasible  things  are  passed  over  in  silence.  Hence 
his  mode  of  action  always  appears  justifiable  and  his  motives 

good. 

2.  Commmtarii  de  hello  civili,  in  three  books,  are  pei-vaded 
by  the  same  spirit,  and  contain  an  account  of  the  civil  war 
between  Csesar  and  Pompey,  down  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Alexandrian  war. 

After  Ccesar's  death  his  friends  undertook  to  describe  those 
campaigns  of  which  he  himself  had  given  no  account,  viz.: 
those  of  the  last  year  of  his  governorship  of  Gaul— the  Alex- 
andrian, the  African,  and  the  Spanish  wars.  These  three  are 
evidently  the  productions  of  difierent  writers. 

The  account  of  Caesar's  eighth  or  last  year  in  Gaul  and 
that  of  the  Alexandrian  war  are  written  by  a  man  of  culture 
who  tried,  and  not  unsuccessfully,  to  imitate  the  style  of 
Caesar  himself,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Caesar's  friend, 
A.  Hirtius,  is  the  author. 

The  accounts  of  the  African  and  Spanish  wars,  which  have 
sometimes  been  regarded  as  the  work  of  G.  Oppius,  another 
friend  of  Cesar's,  cannot  possibly  have  proceeded  from  his 
pen.  The  history  of  the  Spanish  war  is  evidently  the  produc- 
tion of  an  uneducated  person,  who  had  no  idea  of  style  or 
even  correctness  of  language;  and  that  of  the  African  war  is 
written  in  a  bombastic  style  and  without  taste.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  these  two  accounts  may  have  been  drawn 
up  at  Hirtius'  request  by  some  subordinate  oflBcers,  who  had 
served  in  the  wars,  as  materials  to  be  used  by  Hirtius  at 
some  future  time.  These  books  are  generally  printed  to- 
gether with  the  genuine  works  of  Caesar. 


86  HISTOEY  OP   LATIN  tITEBATUBE.         [pEEIOD  IV. 

tJ^^^S"^  ^'"^  ^PP''^  "^''^  ""^"^  Of  literary  culture  and 

.    71.  Cornelius  Nepos,  a  native  of  northern  Italr  lived  on 
intimate  terms  with  Cicero,  Atticus,  and  the  poet  cXlIus 
He  was  probab^  bom  about  b.c.  94,  and  died  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  about  B.C.  24.     Further  details  of  his  life  are 

m  his  boyhood.  Nepos  was  evidently  a  good-natured  and 
honest  man,  but  intellectually  much  'inferior  to  hTs  ereat 
contemporanes.  He  was  the  author  of  several  works,^oX 
one  of  which  has  come  down  to  us.  His  lost  works  of  XI 
we  have  any  knowledge  are:— 

1.  ^roiiapoe^,  alluded  to  in  one  of  Pliny's  Epistles. 
.  -■^'■'■onica,  probably  a  chronological  summary  like  that 

bLtd^tT^t'^v^rnr''""  ''"^ '''  ^^^^^  °^  °'^-  -«- 

3    ExemjpU,  in  at  least  five  books.     From  the  onof«fm^« 
crnttI;fthe''"^"■7't^L *''''*  -  Srwo?k  tlTS 

tl,ot'  -i^  ^^*  «/ C'«to.  which  he  wrote  at  the  request  of  Atticus  • 

•xteut  IS  distinctly  stated  by  Nepos  himself. 

afte;  CicSs'deaa!"''  "  ""'^  ''~'^'  P'-"^"'^'^  ''°"'P-«'» 

droVaiZZ^^'f  "'"'■^'  ^PP^'^^tly  ^  collection  of  won- 
Sern^enT  ^°'"'°""  ''°'"'"^'  ^*°«*  ^^  -itical 

^'n.eonly  work  of  ComeUus  Nepos  that  has  come  down  to 

nnlmfl'  ^^^  ^^^^l^ifmlmperatorum,  a  collection  of  very 

Sn  a^d TP  r   °^  ^'""^  8^°^'''l^'  ^I'ort  sketches  of 
i-eismn  and  Macedonian  kings,  of  Hamilcar,  Hannibal,  Cato, 

ben,'  ElucatWSe         •      '^"'^  ^'^""8'  '^^'  ""<*  *"  ^ham- 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14] 


p.   NIGIDIUS  FIGULUS. 


87 


and  a  somewhat  deified  life  of  Mticus.  There  is  no  plan 
in  the  work,  which  seems  to  have  been  drawn  up  hastily  and 
with  little  preparation:  for  some  of  the  authorities  which 
oucrht  to  have  been  consulted  are  altogether  overlooked,  and 
those  which  have  been  used  have  often  been  misunderstood. 
The  author  does  not  distinguish  between  what  is  important 
and  what  is  not,  and  is  fond  of  relating  what  is  merely  curious 
or  anecdotical  instead  of  what  is  of  true  historical  import- 
ance. His  style  is  rather  elegant  as  long  as  he  confines  him- 
self to  short  sentences,  but  when  he  attempts  longer  periods 
he  becomes  involved  and  clumsy,  and  some  of  his  constructions 
diff-er  from  the  better  prose  of  his  time.  For  these  and  other 
reasons  the  work  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  the  produc- 
tion of  one  ^milius  Probus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Honorius;  but  this  opinion  has  long  since  been 

refuted. 

72.  P.  Nigidius  Figulus,  born  about  B.C.  98,  was  praetor 
in  B  c.  68.  Being  a  zealous  partisan  of  Pompey  he  was  sent 
into  exile  by  Caesar,  and  died  abroad  in  b.  c.  45.  He  belonged 
to  the  Pythagorean  school  of  philosophy,  and  was  reputed  to 
be  a  man  of  extensive  learning  in  all  departments,  especially  m 
the  natural  sciences,  which,  however,  he  seems  to  have  made 
use  of  chiefly  for  mystic  purposes,  such  as  the  finding  where 
stolen  property  was  concealed,  and  to  foretell  men  s  future 
fate  by  astrological  calculations.  His  works,  of  which  we 
possess  only  fragments,  were: — 

1 .  Commentarii  Grammatki,  probably  in  thirty  books,  treated 
of  the  whole  subject  of  grammar,  frequently  trying  to  trace 
the  phenomena  of  language  to  their  causes;  but  his  gram- 
matical studies  never  acquired  the  same  popularity  as  those 

ofVarro.  i.  i         i.    -i 

2.  A  work  De  Extis,  Le»,  on  the  significance  of  the  entrails 
at  sacrifices.  With  this  subject  was  connected  a  work  in  several 
books  on  augury,  and  another  on  dreams. 

3.  De  JDiiSj  consisting  of  at  least  nineteen  books,  in  which  he 
discussed  the  gods  and  theii'  worship,  both  Roman  and  foreign. 

♦  There  are  numberless  editions  of  Com  Nepos;  but  the  best  among 
them  are  those  of  C.  L.  Roth:  Basel,  1841;  and  Nipperdey:  Leipzig, 
1849.  A  good  school  edition  is  that  in  Chambers'  Latm  Series  of  thef 
Educational  Course* 


I 


83  HISTOKY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 

4  Dt  Ventis,  consisting  of  at  least  two  books.     Fe  further 
^ote  on  zoology  and  other  branches  of  physical  sciencf 

73  Valeriuf  cl'^f  r't'  ^T""  ^^^'"■'  ^''<*  ^-  ^'''^■ 
„„     J-  ""^""^  ^^^<  a  teacher  of  gramniar  and  a  poet  was 

seXd^t  hr"\'  '"'/""°'  ''"'  ^^  himself  indig^::  iyT- 

oftulla      wt  I^  r  ^'"^  ^'i'* '°''  ''^  P**"'"""^  ^  the  time 
01  bulla      He  died  at  a  very  advanced  age  in  extreme  povertv 

He  wrote  poems  which  seem  to  have  been  of  aa  erotilX' 

meter,  a^d  which  were  entitled  Lydia,  Diana,  aS  LT^  t 

oSs  Pn^Z  f  1°°*'^'''  *'^'^"  ^""^  g«-an>mariaa  was 
uroilius  Pupillus  of  Beneventum,  well  known  from  Horace's 
allusion  to  him.     He  also  lived  to  an  advanced  agfrnTIn 

complained  of  the  wrongs  done  to  teachers  by  the  negli-ence 
and  ambition  of  parents.  He  seems  to  have  been  as  severe 
with  his  pupils  as  Valerius  Cato  was  gentle. 

chieflv  bv'>?*'^t/°^*^'  law  was  promoted  during  this  period 
ctuelly  by  A.  Ofihus,  Trebahus,  A .  CasceUius,  and  othere-  and 
It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  C»sar  had  fonned  th^'pkn 
of  collecting,  with  the  assistance  of  A.  Ofilius,  all  the  ex  st^ 

o"uf  irCZ^-"'-  ^"*  ^^  --  P--^  frJ'Jrr^i^^ 

Among  the  orators  of  this  time  the  following  deserve  to 

be  mentioned,   although  we  have  nothing  to  attestTheir 

Mmrrnus,  C.  Mamhus,  and  P.  SesHus. 

his  life  si''tW  .^"'"«-J''«  °»ly  account  we  have  of 
BIS  me  states  that  he  was  bom  in  b.c.  95,  that  bv  a  love 

K  soLr^r"?  ^"*°  "  ^*^*^  °f  '"^"«^«'  *hat  he  com! 
l^TiuTt  '''•  °^  ^"^  S""^*'  P^eo'  during  lucid  intervals 

"e  ?f  Jr  M^'h'  v"'t^  ^''^  f"^^*"^"^  year  of  his 
Rome  b„t  %  /;  ?^  '"■"''l^  '*^*"'  ^''^t  ^'>  ^"^^  hom  at 
and  whall-     ??'^»°^.n^^here  he  received  his  education, 

phUoIonW  nfT"?  ^'"^  "',*  *^  P''°''°""<J  admiration  of  the 
exinder  t  h?'""™',  "^  ^'""^  •>«  afterwards  became  the 

LZe  from  „  \^  ^°"^-  ^!  '*^*^""^''*  *^**  he  became 
insane  trom  a  love  potion,  and  that  he  committed  suicide 

sounds  rather  apocryphal,  and  may  be  a  mere  iTveiZn  of 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  T.    LtrCRETlUS   CARUS. 


89 


those  who  thought  an  Epicurean  and  an  atheist  could  not 
end  otherwise.  It  is  further  said  that  Cicero  corrected  his 
poem;  but,  if  this  were  true,  Cicero  would  surely  have 
alluded  to  it  somewhere ;  he  mentions  Lucretius  only  very 
rarely,  and  not  in  very  complimentary  terms,  allowing  him 
to  be  a  man  of  talent,  but  stating  that  he  is  deficient  in 
artistic  culture. 

Lucretius'  only  work  is  a  didactic  poem,  in  six  books,  en- 
titled Be  Rerum  Natura;  it  has  come  down  to  us  entire,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  gaps,  and  is  addressed  to  C.  Memmius 
Gemellus.  It  gives  the  views  of  Epicurus  on  nature,  psycho- 
logy, and  ethics,  more  con-ectly  perhaps  than  any  other 
writer.  The  object  of  the  poem  is  to  convince  his  readers 
of  the  truth  of  the  Epicurean  doctrines,  and  thereby  to 
free  them  from  the  absurd  fear  of  the  gods  and  of  death. 
He  himself  is  so  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
the  Epicurean  system,  that  he  looks  with  profound  pity 
upon  those  who  do  not  acknowledge  it,  and  is  ready  to 
endure  obliquy  and  poverty  for  the  honour  of  expounding 
the  system  to  his  countrymen.  The  substance  of  Ms  poem 
is  thus  taken  from  Epicurus ;  in  the  treatment  of  it  he 
followed  Empedocles,  and  in  form  the  annals  of  Ennius. 
His  style  and  language,  like  his  thoughts,  went  back  to  a 
bygone  age ;  the  polished  style  of  his  contemporaries  seems 
to  have  appeared  to  him  little  suited  to  the  subject  he 
was  writing  about,  hence  the  many  archaic  forms  of  his 
language. 

Lucretius  probably  chose  the  poetical  form  as  the  vehicle 
of  his  teaching,  because  he  thought  it  would  thereby  find  a 
more  ready  access  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of  his  readers. 
And  notwithstanding  the  dryness  of  his  subject,  Lucretius' 
poetic  genius  has  imparted  to  his  work  a  freshness  and  a 
charm  which  only  a  true  poet  could  give  to  it.  In  his  own 
time  the  poem  seems  to  have  made  no  great  impression, 
but  on  the  poets  of  the  next  generation  it  exercised  a  decided 
influence  \  thus  Vergil  is  said  to  have  boiTowed  from  him  not 
only  words,  but  almost  entire  verses ;  and  Horace  shows  in 
many  ways  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  work  of 
Lucretius.  Later  on  those  men  who  had  a  liking  for  archaic 
forms  even  preferred  him  to  Yergil.     Some  imperfections  are 


^^  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 

explained  by  the  fact  that  the  author  did  not  Hve  to  ^ve 
his  work  a  final  revision.*  ® 

76.  The  period  from  b.c.  53  to  43  embraces  the  civil  wars 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey  with  their  foUowers;  it  was  a  time 
of  the  greatest  excitement,  not  only  in  social  and  political 
life  but  aJso  in  literature,  which,  especially  in  history  and 
oratory,  sided  either  with  one  party  or  the  other.  The 
mfluence  of  Greek  culture  had  reached  that  point  where  the 
Romans  began  to  feel  that  now  they  might  rival  their  masters 
both  m  poetry  and  in  oi-atory.  In  poetry,  however,  instead 
ot  fo  lowing  the  classical  models,  they  took  for  their  guides, 
m  substance  as  well  a^  in  form,  the  Alexandrians,  whose  lax 
morals  were  more  in  accordance  with  those  of  the  Romans 
at  tins  time,  whence  almost  every  poet  wrote  erotic  poems. 
Ihe  freedom  which  orators  were  still  enjoying  found  itself 
more  and  more  reduced  and  restrained  as  the  republic  died 
away  to  make  room  for  monarchy. 

77.  C.  Sallustius  Crispus,  bom  at  Amiternum  in  b.c.  87, 
was  tribune   of  the  plebs  in  b.c.   52,  but  two  years  later 
he  was  ejected  from  the  senate,  probably  through  factious 
intngues.     Caesar,  however,  to  whose  party  Sallust  belonged, 
contrived  to  restore  him  by  causing  him  to  be  elected  qu^stor. 
Afterwards  he  obtained  the  prsetorship,  and  through  Cesar's 
influence  the  pro^onsulship  of  Africa,   where   he   appears 
to   have    amassed   great  wealth.      His    extortions    in  his 
provmce  were  enormous,  but  when  he  wa^  accused  C^sar 
procured  his  acquittal.     Sallust  then  bought  a  villa  near 
Ilbur,  and  laid  out  splendid  gardens  on  the  Quirinal  (Jtorti 
kvUustmm),     After  the  murder  of  C^sar,  Sallust  Hved  in 
retirement,  devoting  himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits, 
especially  to  history,  and  died  in  b.c.  35.    All  ancient  writer^ 
who  speak  of  Sallust  are  unanimous  in  condemning  him  for 
his  dissolute  conduct  in  early  life,  and  draw  attention  to  the 
contract  between  his  teaching  in  his  writings  and  his  practice, 
ballust's  wntmgs  are —  o 

1.  CatUina,  or  Bellum  CatiUnarium,  probably  the  first 
work  he  ever  wrote.    It  appears  to  have  been  published  after 

BerlS'^^*  nn^^'?  l^f"""^  of  Lucretius  are  those  of  C.  Lachmann: 
^rim,  1850;  and  of  A.  J.  H.  Munro,  2ud  edition:  Cambridge   1866 
With  notes  and  an  Enghsh  transIatioiL  vamoriage,  I8t,b, 


6.0.  60-A.D.  14.]  e.   SALLUTltS  CRISttJS. 


01 


the  death  of  Caesar,  and  is  based  upon  the  author's  own  recol- 
lections, on  Cicero's  work,  De  Consulatu  JSuo,  and  on  the 
Acta  Senatus;  but  other  sources  seem  to  have  been  neglected, 
whence  many  corrections  and  additions  to  the  history  of 
Catiline  must  still  be  made  from  other  authorities.  Sallust 
evidently  tries  to  be  impartial,  but  cannot  conceal  his  sym- 
pathy with  Caesar,  and  towards  Cicero  he  is  scarcely  fair. 
The  treatment  of  his  subject  is  psychological  and  rhetorical, 
rather  than  historical,  and  the  style  rugged  and  sententious. 

2.  JugurtJia,  or  Bellum  Jugurthinum.  Sallust  took  up 
'his  subject  probably  because  he  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  localities  of  the  war,  but  more  especially  because  it 
afibrded  him  an  opportunity  of  exhibiting  the  misconduct  of 
the  optimates,  who,  after  the  death  of  the  Gracchi,  had 
reached  the  climax  of  their  insolence  and  arrogance.  This 
tendency  is  manifest  throughout  the  work,  especially  in  the 
speeches  of  Memmius  and  Marius,  and  in  the  manner  in 
which  Marius,  the.  champion  of  the  democratic  party,  is 
spoken  of.  But,  notwithstanding  this,  Sallust  is  neither 
blind  to  the  faults  of  his  favourite,  nor  does  he  underrate  the 
character  of  Sulla.  The  Jugurtlm,  is  altogether  an  admirable 
and  impartial  monogram,  which  he  seems  to  have  composed 
with  great  care,  for  the  history  is  as  complete  as  it  can 
be,  and  the  style  is  much  more  smooth  and  elegant  than 
in  the  Catiline ;  and  although  the  subject  is  only  the  mono- 
tonous history  of  wars,  yet  he  has  succeeded  in  imparting 
to  it  a  variety  and  animation  which  make  the  Jugurtlui  one 
of  the  most  charming  productions  of  Latin  literature. 

3.  Historice.  They  commenced  with  the  year  B.C.  78,  in 
which  Sulla  died,  and  were  continued  down  to  the  year  b.c. 
67,  though  it  was  probably  intended  to  carry  the  history  down 
to  the  Catilinarian  conspiracy.  This  work,  which  seems  to 
have  consisted  of  at  least  five  books,  was  thus  a  kind  of 
continuation  of  the  history  of  Sisenna.*  We  now  possess 
only  fragments  of  it,  the  most  important  among  which 
are  four  speeches  of  Lepidus,  L.  Philippus,  C.  Cotta,  and 

*  Good  editions  of  Sallust,  which  also  contain  the  fragments  of  the 
HistoricBf  are  those  of  Gerlach:  Baale,  1823-1831,  in  3  vols.;  and  of 
C.  Kritz:  Leipzig,  1828-1853,  in  3  vols.  A  good  school  edition  is 
that  of  T.  Keightley:  London,  1848. 


92  HISTORY  OP   LATIN  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  If. 

Licinius  Macer,  and  two  letters,  one  of  Pompej  and  the 
other  of  Mithradates. 

There  are  two  letters  addressed  to  Csesar,  De  Ordinanda 
Eepublica,  which  were  formerly  attributed  to  Sallust,  and  the 
style  of  which  bears  indeed  some  resemblance  to  that  of 
Sallust,  but  their  contents  are  of  such  a  nature  that  it  is 
impossible  to  consider  them  as  works  of  Sallust.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  the  two  declamationes  of  Sallust  against  Cicero, 
and  of  Cicero  against  Sallust ;  for  though  they  contain  much 
valuable  infonnation,  still  it  is  inconceivable  that  two  men, 
already  advanced  in  years,  men  who  had  never  been  per- 
sonally connected  with  each  other,  should  thus  publicly  assail 
each  other.  They  are  probably  rhetorical  exercises  of  some 
one  who  thought  the  enmity  between  Cicero  and  Sallust  was 
a  fair  subject  for  rhetorical  display. 

Sallust,  as  an  historian,  seems  to  have  taken  Thucydides 
for  his  model;  and,  like  him,  he  undertook  to  write  about 
times  through  which  he  himself  had  passed,  or  about  which 
he  could  consult  eye-witnesses.  In  treating  of  such  times 
the  temptation  was  of  course  great  to  give  way  to  personal 
views  and  feelings;  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  Sallust 
on  the  whole  has  kept  himself  free  from  undue  partiality. 
The  murder  of  Caesar  may  have  somewhat  softened  down  his 
democratic  passion,  and  convinced  him  of  the  weaknesses  of 
his  time  and  of  the  folly  of  trying  to  swim  against  the  cur- 
rent. Sallust  is  really  the  first  artistic  historian  among  the 
Romans.  He  bestowed  great  care  upon  his  compositions,  and 
imitated  the  best  Greek  models ;  he  did  not  adopt  the  style 
most  popular  in  his  own  time,  but  formed  one  peculiar  to  him- 
self, following  the  manner  of  the  elder  Cato  rather  than  that 
of  his  contemporaries.  Hence  the  archaic  colouring  which 
characterises  his  works. 

78.  Q.  ^lius  Tubero  tried  at  first  the  career  of  an  orator, 
and,  partly  from  personal  motives  and  partly  to  please  C^sar, 
he  came  forward  as  an  accuser  of  Ligarius  in  a  speech  (e.a  46) 
which  Quintilian  still  read;  but  being  opposed  by  Cicero,  he 
had  little  chance  of  success.  He  gained  more  fame  by  his 
legal  and  historical  writings.  Among  the  former  his  work, 
De  Officio  Judicis,  in  at  least  nine  books,  is  often  referred  to! 
As  to  his  historical  work,  Uistorice,  consisting  of  at  least 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


p.   TERENTIUS  VARRO. 


&3 


fourteen  books,  we  know  that  it  began  with  the  earliest  times 
and  ended  with  the  civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey. 
His  style  is  said  to  have  been  archaic,  and  was,  therefore, 

not  very  popular.*  „    ^  ji- 

In  the  matter  of  style  Tubero  was  surpassed  by  P.  Aljenus 
Varus,  of  Cremona,  who  was  a  shoemaker's  son,  but  went  to 
Home,  and  by  his  talent  and  industry  rose  even  to  the 
consulship  in  B.C.  39.  His  work  called  Digesta,  m  f oj-^y 
books,  and  consisting  of  a  collection  of  Responsa,  was  highly 
valued  by  the  jurists  of  later  times.  C.  Matius,  born  about 
B.C.  84,  was  a  faithful  friend  of  Caesar,  and  a  man  of  a  gentle 
disposition,  who,  without  involving  himself  in  the  political 
feuds  of  the  day.  exerted  himself  as  a  mediator  between  the 
contendino'  parties.  He  transferred  his  afiection  for  Caesar 
to  Octavi^nus,  and  died  about  B.C.  4.  He  wote  a  gastrono- 
raical  work  in  three  books,  entitled  Cocus,  Cetanus,  and 
Salgamarius,  which  shows  that  he  attached  much  importance 
to  the  pleasures  of  the  table. 

Other  contemporaries  and  followers  of  Caesar,  who  are  known 
as  orators,  or  as  authors  of  letters  still  extant  among  those  of 
Cicero,  are  C.  SeHbonius  Curio,  Q.  Cornijicius,  M.  Antony, 
L.  Balbus,  and  several  othei-s,  among  whom  we  even  hear  of 
a  lady  orator,  Hortensia,  a  daughter  of  Q.  Hortensius,  whose 
speech,  delivered  in  B.C.  43,  was  read  as  late  as  the  time  of 

Quintilian.  ,     . 

The  most  eminent  scholars  and  teachers  of  this  time,  some  of 
whom  also  distinguished  themselves  as  writers,  were  the  Greek 
Ateius  PrcEtextatus,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Philologus ; 
Lenoius,  a  freedman  of  Pompey ;  Epidius,  and  Sextus  Clodius, 

79.  The  poets  of  this  time  seem  to  have  kept  aloof  from 
the  strife  of  the  political  parties,  at  least  we  have  no  traces 
of  any  partisanship  in  any  of  their  remains.  The  following 
are  those  best  known  : — 

1.  P.  Terentius  Varro,  surnamed  Atacinus,  from  a  place 
called  Atax  in  southern  Gaul,  was  born  in  B.C.  82,  and 
died  probably  about  B.C.  36.  He  is  said  to  have  studied 
Greek  literature  when  he  was  already  thirty-five  years  old. 
He  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem,  De  Bello  Sequanico,  of 

*  The  few  fragments  of  his  history  have  been  collected  by  Krause, 
p.  325,  foil.,  and  by  Hoth,  Hist,  Vet.  Rom.  Beliiuke,  p.  437,  foil. 


04:  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 

which  a  second  book  is  mentioned.     Another  work  was  a 
tree  tmnslation  of  the  Argo7iautica  of  Apollonius  Rhodius,  in 
lour  books,  in  which  he  does  not  seem  to  hav^  displayed 
much  command  of  language.     Besides  these  books  he  com- 
posed ^aturce  which,  according  to  Horace,  were  not  very 
successful.       He  further  wrote  a  work  entitled  Chorogra 
p/iia,  which  contained,  in  verse,  a  description  of  the  world 
so  tar  as  it  was  then  known,  and  appears  to  have  been  based 
upon   a   Greek  work   by  Alexander   of  Ephesus,   entitled 
Li/c/mos;  also  elegies  of  an  erotic  character  are  mentioned 
but  not  one  of  his  works  has  come  down  to  us  *  ' 

2.  Tanusius,  probably  a  native  of  Padua,  whose  versified 
Annales  Catullus  speaks  of  with  the  greatest  contempt. 

3.  P.  Syrus  (see  p.  82).  ^ 

80.  Among  the  opponents  of  Csesar  there  were  few  men 
ot  literary  eminence.     The  most  distinguished  among  them, 
perhaps,  was  i¥.  Junius  Brutus,  one  of  Cesar's  murderers 
who   gained   great   reputation   for   the   earnestness   of  his' 
speeches,  some  of  which  were  published.     He  was  the  author 
ot  several  philosophical  works,  as  De  Virtute  and  De  Fallen- 
ha.     His  style  may  still  be  seen  in  his  letters  addressed  te 
Ucero.  t    Other  conspirators  against  Caesar,  such  as  R  Brutus, 
t.  Casstus,  Cassncs  of  Parma,  and  C.  Trebonius,  are  likewise 
known  froni  their  correspondence  with  Cicero.     Cassius  of 
±;arma  and  Trebonius  also  wrote  poetry;  and  the  former,  an 
J^picurean,  is  said  to  have  written  many  tragedies,  ele<Hes, 
and  epigrams;  the  latter  published  a  collection  of  .Atty 
sayings  of  Ciceix>,  who  seems  to  have  been  much  delighted 
with  It.    There  is  also  mention  of  two  historians,  Ti.  Ampins 
Balbus,  a  zealous  partisan  of  Pompey,  and  M.  Antonius  Naso, 
who  wrote  a  work  on  Cjesar  and  the  time  of  the  civil  war  • 
but  no  particulars  of  their  nature  or  value  are  recorded 

rp  1  *I'i^  ^^^"^  P^""*^''  ^^  ^^^^d  seem,  belonged  one 
^;c.^rt5,  author  of  erotic  poems,  and  C.  Helvius  Cinna,  a 
tnend  of  Catullus,  who  seems  to  have  died  between  B.C.  44 

P  *  -^!.!,ff-^  r"'  ^^"^^  ^f-""  counted  by  F.  Wullner,  Commentatio  de 
P.    lerentu   Varronis  VUa  et  Scriptis:  MUnster,  1829;  and  by  A 
Riese,   Varronis  Sat.  Menippece.  »     »  ^ ,  <uiu  uy  a, 

^^^  For  the  fragments  Qf  Brutus'  speeches,  see  Meyer,  L  c,  p.  446, 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  C.   VALERIUS  CATULLUS. 


95 


and  39.  His  principal  work  was  an  epic  poem  entitled 
Zmyrna  (Smyrna),  on  the  story  of  the  unnatural  love  of 
Myrrha  for  her  father  Cinyras.  Although  the  poem  was 
short,  he  is  said  to  have  worked  at  it  for  ten  years,  which 
shows  that  he  cannot  have  been  a  man  of  much  talent.  With 
all  this  care,  however,  the  work  was  so  obscure  that  some 
grammarians  of  the  time  found  it  necessary  to  write  com- 
mentaries upon  it.  He  also  wrote  erotic  poems,  of  which 
the  ancients  themselves  do  not  express  a  high  opinion.  He 
was  in  every  respect  a  follower  of  the  Alexandrian  school  of 
poetiy.* 

A  much  greater  poet  was  C.  Licinius  Calvus  who  was 
bom  in  B.C.  82,  and  must  have  died  before  B.C.  47.  He  was 
a  son  of  the  annalist  Licinius  Macer,  and  is  highly  praised 
by  Cicero  for  his  oratorical  powers,  which,  if  he  had  lived 
longer,  would  have  secured  for  him  a  high  position  among 
Roman  orators.  He  imitated  the  great  Athenian  orators, 
and  spoke  with  great  animation  and  even  vehemence.  He 
seems  to  have  published  a  collection  of  his  speeches  in 
twenty  books,  some  of  which  were  read  with  pleasure  in  the 
time  of  Quintilian.t  But  Calvus  was  not  only  great  as  an 
orator;  he  also  wrote  poetry,  in  which  he  combined  the 
formal  correctness  of  the  Alexandrians  with  the  passion  and 
vehemence  of  Catullus,  to  whom  in  many  respects  he  bore  a 
great  resemblance.  The  same  passionate  character  which  he 
displayed  in  his  speeches  was  also  manifested  in  his  poetry, 
which  seems  to  have  been  principally  of  an  erotic  character, 
like  that  of  most  of  his  contemporaries,  who  took  the  Alex- 
andrians for  their  models. 

82.  The  greatest  lyric  poet,  not  only  of  this  period,  but 
in  all  the  Latin  literature,  is 

C.  Valerius  Catullus.  He  was  born  at  Verona  in  b.c.  87, 
and  died  in  B.C.  57,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty.  His  father 
lived  on  terms  of  friendship  with  Caesar,  and  his  son  seems 
to  have  received  his  education  at  Rome,  where  he  formed 
the  acquaintance  of  such  men  as  Cicero,  Cornelius  Nepos, 
and  others,  but  he  did  not  take  part  in  state  affairs.     He 

*  His  fragments  are  collected  in  A  Weichert's  PoUarum  Lot,  VUce, 
etc.,  p.  187,  foil. 
t  See  his  fragments  in  A  Meyer,  1.  c,  p.  474,  foU, 


96 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 


possessed  but  a  moderate  fortune  and  a  small  villa  near 
Tibur.  He  fonned  a  connection  with  a  lady  whom  he  calls 
Lesbia,  but  whose  real  name  was  Clodia,  a  sister  of  the 
notorious  Clodius,  to  whom  he  addressed  the  most  glowing 
and  passionate  poems,  until  at  last  he  discovered  that  the 
woman  whom  he  had  looked  up  to  as  an  ideal,  was  in  reality 
a  person  of  a  disreputable  character.  He  seems  at  fii-st  to 
have  borne  a  grudge  against  Caesar,  though  perhaps  only  on 
accoimt  of  Caesar's  connection  with  the  contemptible  Mam urra; 
but  afterwards  the  friendship  which  had  subsisted  between 
his  father  and  Caesar  was  renewed. 

We  possess  116  poems  of  Catullus,  in  the  earliest  of  which, 
especially  in  the  epic  poem  on  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and 
Thetis,  he  followed  the  example  of  the  Alexandrians;  but 
afterwards  the  manifold  experiences  of  life,  and  his  love  for 
Lesbia,.  developed  his  own  original  genius,  which  unfolded 
itself  in  the  most  varied  forms,  and  on  the  most  varied  sub- 
jects. He  did  not  live  long  enough  to  reach  the  highest 
perfection;  in  all  his  productions  he  appears  as  a  youthful 
enthusiast,  in  his  love  as  well  as  in  his  hate.  He  is  hot-headed 
and  reckless,  and  not  unfrequently  coarse  and  offensive,  and 
transgresses,  according  to  our  ideas,  the  bounds  of  decency 
and  propriety.  But  at  the  same  time  he  expresses,  in  simple 
and  unajflfected  language,  the  tenderest  and  deepest  feelings, 
which  give  to  his  poems  a  charm  and  fascination  which  no 
other  Roman  poet  possesses.  He  probably  published  eacli 
poem  separately,  but  the  order  in  which  they  now  appear  is 
arbitrary,  and  certainly  not  chronologically  arranged,  though 
it  may  be  that  Catullus  himself  made  the  collection,  and 
arranged  the  poems  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  come 
down  to  us.* 

83.  During  this  period,  when  the  republic  was  divided 
into  two  hostile  camps,  the  parties  attacked  each  other  not 
only  in  their  public  speeches,  but  also  in  a  new  kind  of 
literature,  which  we  may  call  political  pamphlets,  in  which 
the  writers  gave  vent  to  their  party  feelings.  The  chief 
opportunities  of  making  such  demonstrations  was  the  custom 

*  The  poems  are  generally  published  together  with  those  of  Tibul- 
lus  and  Propertius;  but  the  best  separate  editions  are  those  of  C, 
Lachmann:  Berlin,  1861;  and  of  R.  Ellis:  London,  1867. 


p.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  THE   AUGUSTAN  AGE. 


97 


of  delivering  orations  at  the  funeral  of  deceased  persons 
(laudationes),  which  were  afterwards  published.  Thus,  when 
Cato  had  committed  suicide  that  he  might  not  live  under  a 
monarchy,  a  number  of  laudationes  were  published  by  Cicero, 
M.  Brutus,  M.  Fadius,  Munatius,  and  others;  while  the 
death  of  Caesar  gave  his  friends  an  opportunity  of  coming 
forward  to  laud  and  extol  his  policy. 

Another  branch  of  literature,  which  may  be  compared  with 
our  oldest  newspapers,  commenced  in  B.C.  59,  when,  on  the 
proposal  of  Caesar,  the  senate  decreed  that  its  own  official 
transactions  {acta  senatus),  as  well  as  the  business  transacted 
by  the  people  (populi  acta  dimina),  should  be  published. 
The  former  of  these  acta  continued  to  be  written  out  down  to 
the  latest  period  of  the  empire,  but  their  publication  was  for- 
bidden by  Augustus.  They  were  kept  in  the  state  archives 
(the  tabularium),  where  the  magistrates  might  inspect  them. 
Some  remains  of  such  acta  senatus  are  still  extant.  The 
acta  populi  diurna  are  also  called  simply  «c^ct  diurna,  acta 
urbana^  acta  urhis,  diurna  (whence  journal)  or  acta.  This 
institution,  which  continued  down  to  the  latest  times,  was  an 
incalculable  benefit  to  the  Romans  who  lived  abroad,  and 
took  an  interest  in  what  was  going  on  at  Rome.  The  publi- 
cation was  under  official  control,  and  numerous  scribes  were 
employed  in  making  copies  and  sending  them  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  empire.  Coj^ies  were  also  deposited  in  the 
tabularium,  where  they  could  be  consulted  by  the  students 
of  history.  We  now  possess  no  genuine  remains  of  these 
acta  diurna. 

C.  The  Augustan  Age. 

(From  the  Death  op  Cicero,  b.c.  43,  to  the  Death  of 

Augustus,  a.d.  14). 

84.  The  change  of  the  republic  into  a  monarchy  after  the 
battle  of  Actium,  in  B.C.  31,  exercised  a  vast  influence  upon 
the  literature,  as  well  as  on  the  social  and  political  life  of 
the  Romans.  Outwardly,  the  forms  and  institutions  of  the 
republic  were  preserved,  as  Augustus  was  warned  by  the 
fate  of  his  gi-eat  uncle  not  to  imperil  his  position  by  any 
sudden  change;  but  he  contrived  gradually  to  concentrate  in 
his  own  person  all  the  powers  previously  possessed  by  the 

g 


98 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


AUGUSTUS. 


99 


several  magistrates.  The  senate  and  the  assembly  of  the 
people  still  met,  but  the  republican  freedom  of  discussion 
died  away,  and  became  mere  flattery  and  declamation.  The 
leading  men  of  the  republican  party  had  died  on  the  field  of 
battle,  or  otherwise,  and  those  who  survived  had  to  resign 
themselves,  willing  or  unwilling,  to  the  new  state  of  things, 
which,  in  the  eyes  of  many,  must  have  appeared  preferable 
to  the  feuds  and  civil  wars  which  for  a  hundred  years  had 
distracted  the  state,  and  shed  the  blood  of  thousands  of 
citizens;  but  freedom  disappeared,  and  those  who,  either  in 
the  senate  or  in  the  assembly,  tried  to  maintain  their  ancient 
rights,  were  in  danger  of  reaping  exile  or  death  as  their 
reward,  and  were  looked  upon  by  the  majority  as  enthusiastic 
idealists. 

Oratory  as  well  as  the  writing  of  history,  at  least  of  con- 
temporary history,  had  to  consider  not  so  much  what  was 
upright  and  true  as  what  would  not  be  displeasing  to  the 
sovereign  and  his  court.  Poetiy,  with  few  exceptions,  be- 
came a  kind  of  elegant  amusement  of  the  higher  cii'cles,  and 
lost  its  influence  upon  the  great  body  of  the  people. 

Literature,  which  had  formerly  been  only  a  recreation  of 
the  men  who  devoted  their  main  energies  to  the  business  of 
the  state,  now  became  a  fashionable  occupation  of  literary 
classes  or  coteries,  which  met  for  hearing  or  criticising  the 
productions  of  friends  or  strangers,  and  in  the  true  spirit  of 
cliques  belauded  worthless  productions,  and  superciliously 
cast  into  the  shade  works  of  sterling  merit.  The  favour 
which  poetry  enjoyed  in  the  highest  circles  of  Roman  society 
called  forth  a  host  of  poets  and  poetasters.  In  like  manner, 
philosophical  pursuits  became  a  matter  of  fashion ;  the  nobler 
Bpirits  seeking  comfort  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics,  while 
iiie  majority  embraced  those  of  Epicurus,  who  seemed  to 
hold  out  to  them  a  life  of  pleasure  and  enjoyment  as  the 
greatest  good.  Yet  we  scarcely  hear  of  any  one  who  entered 
deeply  into  the  study  of  philosophical  questions;  all  was 
shallow  superficiality. 

LatLQ  prose,  which  had  reached  its  highest  perfection  in 
Cicero,  gi-adually  degenerated  into  rhetorical  declamation, 
Livy  alone  forming  an  honourable  exception,  though  even 
his  style  is  not  quite  free  from  poetical  and  rhetorical  em- 


vu«, 


4 


bellishments.  Other  prose  writers  were  engrossed  with  their 
subjects,  and  thought  little  of  the  form  of  their  compositions. 
All  this  will  become  obvious  when  we  consider  the  men  and 
the  works  representing  the  literature  of  the  Augustan  age. 
Some  of  them  who  had  themselves  witnessed  the  death 
struggles  of  the  republic,  show  in  their  writings  a  feeling  of 
sadness  at  the  loss  of  freedom;  while  others,  bom  under  the 
monarchy,  enjoyed,  without  pain  or  misgivings,  the  peace 
and  material  prosperity  which  the  monarchy  had  created. 

85.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  leading  men  of  the 
Augustan  age,  such  as  Asinius  Pollio,  Munatius  Plancus, 
Valerius  Messala,  and  especially  Augustus  himself  and  his 
friend  Maecenas,  cultivated  and  promoted  literature,  though 
the  last  two  obviously  did  so  with  the  intention  of  turning 
men's  attention  from  political  to  other  occupations  that  were 
less  dangerous  to  the  actual  state  of  things.  We  shall  head 
our  account  of  the  literature  of  the  Augustan  age  with  the 
name  of  Augustus  himself. 

8Q.  Augustus. — He  is  praised  both  by  his  contemporaries 
and  by  later  writers  as  an  orator  for  the  elegance,  clearness, 
and  conciseness  of  his  speeches.  He  also  occupied  himself 
with  poetry,  and  wrote  a  work  in  hexameter  verse,  entitled 
Sicilia,  and  a  collection  of  epigrams  which  he  is  said  to  have 
composed  while  bathing.  A  tragedy,  called  Ajax,  which  he 
commenced  with  great  enthusiasm,  was  never  finished.  His 
most  important  work,  however,  was  written  in  prose;  it 
consisted  of  three  books  (volumina),  the  first  of  which  con- 
tained regulations  about  his  own  funeral,  the  second  an 
account  (index)  of  his  own  achievements,  and  the  third  a 
brief  description  of  the  whole  empire,  with  an  account  of  the 
number  of  men  under  arms,  and  of  the  amount  of  money  in 
the  serarium  and  the  fiscus.  The  second  book  Augustus 
ordered  to  be  engraved  on  bronze  tables,  and  to  be  exhibited 
in  front  of  his  mausoleum.  Copies  of  it  were  made  and  sent 
into  the  provinces  to  be  set  up  in  the  temples  which  were 
erected  to  Augustus.  A  copy  of  this  index  was  discovered, 
in  1544,  at  Ancyra,  in  Galatia,  inscribed  on  marble,  the 
Latin  being  accompanied  by  a  Greek  translation.  The  first 
discovery  was  incomplete,  but  other  parts  of  it  in  Greek  were 
subsequently  found  at  Apollonia,  and  the  whole  has  been 


100 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 


B.C.  80-A.l).  14.] 


C.   ASINIUS   POLLIO. 


101 


published  by  Th.  Mommsen,  under  the  title  Hes  Gestae  Divi 
Augusti,  ex  Monumentis  Ancyrano  et  Apolloniense :  Berlin, 
1865.  For  the  history  of  the  time  this  monument  is  of  great 
importance. 

87.  C.  Cilnius  MaBCenas,  the  friend  of  Augustus,  whose 
name  has  become  proverbial  for  a  patron  of  literature,  was 
born  about  B.C.  69,  and  died  in  B.C.  8.  He  belonged  to  an 
ancient  and  noble  Etruscan  family,  and  was  frequently  em- 
ployed by  Augustus  in  diplomatic  missions,  when  it  was 
necessary  to  mediate  or  conciliate,  for  Maecenas  was  a  man 
of  almost  feminine  gentleness,  and  fond  of  ease  and  peace ; 
hence  he  never  took  any  serious  part  in  public  affairs,  and 
being  without  ambition,  he  was  satisfied  with  the  rank  of  a 
simple  eques.  He  was  always  delicate  and  exceedingly  vain, 
though  his  vanity  was  of  a  harmless  nature;  and  he  owes  his 
celebrity  more  to  his  connection  with  Augustus  and  the  most 
eminent  poets  of  the  time  than  to  any  literary  merits  of  his 
own.  His  prose  compositions  are  blamed  for  their  affected 
and  ornamental  style;  and  his  poetical  compositions  appear 
to  have  been  mere  trifles  in  various  meters. 

88.  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa  was  born  in  b.c.  63,  and 
from  early  youth  was  connected  by  friendship  with  Augustus. 
He  was  successively  invested  with  all  the  high  offices  of  the 
state,  and  was  the  ablest  general  of  Augustus  at  sea  as  well  as 
on  land.  He  was  several  times  sent  on  embassies,  and  proved 
himself,  on  all  occasions,  a  faithful  and  trustworthy  servant 
of  his  master.  In  b.c.  21  he  married  a  daughter  of  Augustus, 
and  died  in  b.c.  13.  He  appeared  several  times  as  an  orator, 
and  his  speeches  are  praised  as  splendid  and  worthy  of  a 
citizen  of  the  highest  rank.  His  prose  is  described  as  some- 
what rustic,  but  healthy,  and  whatever  he  did  or  wrote  had 
a  practical  object.  Thus  we  find  that  he  wrote  Commentarii 
about  the  distribution  of  water  at  Rome  from  the  aqueducts. 
The  measurement  of  the  empire  and  its  description,  ordered 
by  Augustus  with  the  assistance  of  the  ablest  men,  was 
undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  Agrippa,  who  himself  drew 
up  a  sketch  of  a  map  of  the  world  and  chorographical  com- 
mentaries, the  former  of  which  was  completed  by  Augustus. 
Lastly,  Agi'ippa  wrote  an  account  of  his  own  life,  which 
consisted  of  at  least  two  books,  which  are  now  lost. 


89.  C.  Asinius  Pollio,  born  in  b.c'  75,  supported  Caesar 
during  the  civil  war,  and,  after  his  death,  would  have 
joined  the  Pompeian  party  if  they  had  shown  more  courage 
and  skill;  but  as  it  was,  he,  after  long  hesitation,  joined  M. 
Antony.  In  B.C.  40  he  was  consul,  and  made  war  upon  the 
Parthini,  in  Illyricum,  who  had  supported  Brutus.  He 
subsequently  fell  out  with  M.  Antony,  and  being  of  too  in- 
dependent a  spirit  to  attach  himself  to  Augustus,  he  with- 
drew from  public  life,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature  and 
oratory,  and  died  A. D.  5,  in  a  villa,  near  Tusculum.  Asinius 
Pollio  wrote: — 

1.  Tragedies,  which  are  called  worthy  of  Sophocles,  and 
were  actually  performed  on  the  stage,  as  must  be  inferred 
from  Horace ;  but  no  further  particulars  are  known  about 
them.  That  he  also  composed  erotic  poetry  is  attested  by 
Pliny ;  but  his  great  work  was 

2.  Ilistorice,  i.e.,  a  history  of  the  civil  wars  from  the  first 
triumvirate,  in  b.c.  60,  down  at  least  to  the  battle  of 
Philippi.  The  work  seems  to  have  consisted  of  three  books. 
As  the  fragments  contain  no  mention  of  the  war  between 
Augustus  and  M.  Antony,  it  is  probable  that  he  did  not 
carry  the  history  so  far,  which  would  indeed  have  been  a 
hazardous  and  dangerous  undertaking, 

3.  Orations,  both  of  a  judicial  and  of  a  political  character, 
which  were  composed  with  extreme  care,  but  were  inferior  in 
elegance  and  polish  to  the  speeches  of  Cicero,  whose  style 
he  disapproved  of.  Most  of  his  speeches  were  judicial  and 
delivered  in  defence  of  some  one.  When  political  oratory 
could  no  longer  be  indulged  in,  he  wrote  rhetorical  exer- 
cises (declaniationes),  which  are  said  to  have  been  rather 
florid.* 

4.  Criticisms. — Some  of  the  criticisms  ascribed  to  him 
seem  to  have  been  contained  in  his  Historice  or  in  his  speeches 
or  declamations;  but  a  separate  book  (liber)  is  mentioned  in 
which  he  censured  the  works  of  Sallust,  and  it  is  well  known 
that  he  found  fault  with  Livy  for  his  Patavinitas,  whatever 
that  may  be.  Lastly,  we  have  three  letters  of  his  addressed 
to  Cicero.     It  may  be  added  that  after  his  triumph  over  the 

*  The  fragments  of  'his  speeches  are  collected  by  H.  Meyer, 
Orcitorum  Rom,  Fragmenta,  p.  487,  foil. 


102  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.       [PERIOD  lY. 

Parthini,  in  3.c.  39,  he  established  a  public  libraiy  at  Rome, 
an  example  which  was  followed  by  Augustus  who  founded 
two  more,  one  called  Octaviana  and  the  other  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo  on  the  Palatine. 

90.  M.  Valerius  Messala  Corvinus  was  born  in  b.c.  58, 
the  same  year  in  which  Livy  was  bom.     His  death  cannot 
be  assigned  to  an  earlier  date  than  a.d.  9.     Although  he  was 
absent  from  Rome  at  the  time  when  Casar  was  murdered 
his  name  was  put  on  the  proscription  list  in  B.C.  43.     He 
remamed  with  Brutus  and  Cassius,  next  to  whom  he  was  the 
prmcipal  man  in  their  army.     After  the  battle  of  Philippi  he 
joined  M.  Antony,  for  his  name  had  been  effaced  from  the  list 
of  the  proscribed;  but  unable  to  brook  the  conduct  of  Antony 
he  joined  Augustus,  who  received  him  with  open  arms,  and 
procured  for  him  the  consulship,  B.C.  31,  in  place  of  Antony. 
Messala  remained  faithful  to  Augustus,  but  without  givino- 
up  his  former  friends  or  principles.     He  is  praised  by  CicerS 
as  an  orator,  and  Tacitus  says  that  he  was  gentler,  sweeter, 
and  in  his  expressions  more  careful  than  Cicero.     His  style 
was  most  correct.*     Messala  also  wrote  bucolics  in  the  style 
of  those  of  Vergil,  and  seems  to  have  composed  in  Greek 
memoirs  on  the  events  of  his  own  time.     He  even  wrote  on 
grammatical  subjects,  as  a  book  of  his  on  the  letter  S  is 
mentioned.     The   poet   Tibullus   addressed   to   him  several 
poems  which  are  still  extant,  and  show  the  high  esteem  with 
which  he  was  looked  up  to  by  his  contemporaries. 
^    91.  We  have  seen  that  Augustus  himself  as  well  as  his 
intimate  friends  all  tried  their  hands  more  or  less  at  poetry, 
though  scarcely  one  of  them  deserves  the  name  of  a  poet.  The 
first  real  poet,  and  at  the  same  time  the  oldest  of  those  of  the 
Augustan  age,  was  L.  Varius  Rufus,  bom  about  b.c.  74;  he 
was  an  admirer  of  Caesar  and  afterwards  of  Augustus,  and  a 
fnend  of  VergH  and  Horace.     He  composed  epic  poetry,  in 
which  he  celebrated  the  exploits  of  Agrippa  and  Augustus; 
but  the  best  of  his  poetical  productions  appears  to  have  been  a 
tragedy  called  Thyestes,  which  Quintilian  says  might  stand 
comparison  with  any  Greek  di-ama.     It  was  Varius  who  fii-st 
mtroduced  Horace  to  Maecenas,  and  it  was  he  who  published 
Vergil's  uEneid,  notwithstanding  the  author's  wish  that  it 
*  See  the  fragments  of  his  speeches  in  H.  Meyer,  p.  503,  foil. 


A^ 


|W 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  P.   VERGILIUS  MARO.  103 

should  be  destroyed.*  He  seems  to  have  died  about  B.C.  14. 
JEmilius  Macer,  of  Verona,  a  contemporary  of  Varius,  and 
likewise  a  friend  of  Vergil,  was  the  author  of  didactic 
poems,  in  which  he  imitated  Nicander;  we  know  little  of 
them  beyond  their  titles— as  OmithogonixE,  in  several  books; 
Theriaca,  and  a  work  on  plants.  The  subjects  of  his  poetry 
evidently  referred  to  natural  history.     He  died   m  Asia, 

B.C.  16. 

92.  P.  Vergilius  Marc  was  bom  at  Andes,  a  village  near 
Mantua,  on  the  15th  of  October,  B.C.  70.     He  was  the  son 
of  respectable  but  by  no  means  wealthy  parents,  who  lived 
to  see  their  son's  great  success  in  life,  and  were  indebted  to 
him  for  the  care  he  took  of  them  in  their  old  age.     He 
received  his  first  education  at  Verona,  and  having  assumed 
the  toga  virilis  proceeded  to  Mediolanum;  after  a  short  stay 
at  Rome,  he  went  to  Naples,  where  he  received  instruction  in 
Greek  from  Parthenius.     He  also  devoted  himself  seriously 
to  the  study  of  philosophy,  and,  together  with  Varius,  attended 
the  lectures  of  the   Epicurean  Syro,  though  the  system  of 
Epicurus  seems  to  have  had  few  attractions  for   him;    he 
preferred  the  teachings  of  Plato  and  the  Stoics.     One  of  his 
earliest  poetical  essays  was  no  doubt  the  one  entitled  Culex, 
After  the  death  of  Gsesar  he  seems  to  have  returned  to  his 
native  place,  and  there  in  the  stillness  of  country  life  to  have 
formed  the  plan  of  imitating  the  idyls  of  Theocritus.     To  this 
period  belong  the  2nd,  3rd,  5th,  aud  9th  eclogues,  the  first 
two  of  which  are  rather  weak  imitations  of  Theocritus.     In 
this  peaceful  occupation  he  was  disturbed  by  the  consequences 
of  the  civil  war.     For  when,  after  the  battles  of  Philippi, 
B.C.  41,  Octavianus  rewarded  his  veterans  with  assignments 
of  land,  a  large  portion  of  their  territory  was  taken  from 
the  Mantuans  because  they  had  not  supported  Octavianus 
during  the   war.      On  that   occasion  Vergil  lost  his  little 
estate,  which  was  assigned  to  a  veteran   of  the  name   of 
Claudius.     He  complained  of  this  proceeding,  and,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Maecenas,  Octavianus  ordered  the  estate 
to  be  restored  to  Vergil,  who  expressed  his   gratitude  for 
this  act  in  his  first  eclogue.     But  fresh  troubles  arose  during 

*  The  few  remains  of  Varius'  Thyestes  may  be  seen  in  0.  Ribbeck's 
Tragicorum  Lat.  JReliqum,  347. 


104  HISTORY   OF   LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV, 

the  war  of  Penisia,  b.c.  41,  and  Vergil  wa^  again  in  danger 
of  losing  his  property:  a  centurion  of  the  name  of  Arriiis 
took  possession  of  it,  and  even  threatened  the  life  of  its 
owner.     Vergil  yielded  to  force  and  went  to  Eome,  where 
he  composed  the  9th  eclogue,  and  again  obtained  the  restora- 
tion of  his  property,   this  time  through  the  mediation  of 
his  friend  Varus     Vergil's  gratitude  for  this  act  of  kindness 
is  expressed  in  his  6th  eclogue.      About  tliis  time  Verdi 
seems  to  have  lived  mostly  at  Home,  where  he  became  so 
mtimate  with  M^cenas  that,  in  B.C.  39,  he  could  introduce 
^orace  to  him;  and  two  yeai-s  later  both  poets  accompanied 
Maecenas  on  his  journey  to  Brundisium.     Before  this  journev 
he  seems  to  have  finished  his  tenth  eclogue,  with  which  he 
appears  to  have  closed  the  pastoral  poetry,  probably  because 
he  had  already  resolved  to  write  the  Georgica,  which  he 
linished  at  Naples  in  b.c.  30,  aft^r  having  spent  seven  years 
on  its  composition.     It  is  possible  that  even  while  engaged 
npon  the  Georgica  he  formed  the  plan  of  the  ^neid;  but 
at  all  events,  m  b.c.  25,  after  long  preparation,  he  had  made  a 
commencement  of  it;  and,  in  b.c.  23,  he  wa^  able  to  read  to 
Augustus  the  2nd,  4th,  and   6th  books.     At  his  reading 
the  6th  book,  the  mother  of  Marcellus,  who  was  present,  is 
said  to  have  been  so  much  moved  that  she  fainted,  and  to 
have  given  to  Vergil  a  large  sum  of  money  for  every  verse. 
In  B.c  19  he  resolved  to  go  to  Greece  and  Asia,  and  to  spend 
there  three  years  upon  revising  and  publishing  the  £neicL 
mtending  thereafter  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  philosophy 
But  when  on  his  way  from  Athens  he  met  Augustus,  who 
was  returning  from  the  East,  and  determined  to  accompany 
him  to  Rome,  but  was  seized  by  an  illness  which  the  sea 
voyage  only  aggravated.    He  died  a  few  days  after  his  arrival 
at  Brundisium,  in  September,  b.c.  19.     When  he  felt  death 
approachmg  he  asked  for  the  MS.  of  the  .Eneid,  intending 
to  bum  it  because  he  had  not  been  able  to  give  it  his  final 
revision;  but  as  this  was  refused  he  made  it  a  stipulation  in 
Ills  will  that  the  poem  should  l)e  burnt.     Notwithstanding^ 
thisexpress  wish,  Augustus  would  not  allow  it  to  be  destroyed'' 
and  made  it  oyer  to  Vergil's  friends,  Varius  and  Tucca,  to  be 
published  as  It  was,  without   any  addition   or  alteration. 
V  ergU  had  also  expressed  a  wish  that  his  remains  should  be 


B.C.  80-A.D.   14.] 


f.  Vergilius  maro. 


105 


buried  at  Naples,  where  he  had  spent  so  many  happy  days, 
and  wrote  his  own  epitaph,  which  may  still  be  read  on 
his  supposed  tomb  close  to  the  entrance  of  the  tunnel  of 
Mount  Posilipo.  That  place  is  still  visited  with  respectful 
reverence  by  all  visitors  to  Naples,  but  it  has  been  proved 
that  that  spot  cannot  possibly  have  been  the  burial  place  of 
Vergil. 

Vergil  is  described  as  a  tall  man,  of  a  somewhat  rustic 
appearance,  who  was  rarely  in  good  health,  suflfering  much 
from  his  stomach  and  from  headache.      He  had  a  house 
at  Rome,  on  the  Esquiline,  near  the  gardens  of  M^cenas, 
though  he  prefen-ed  living  in  Campania  and  Sicily.     He  was 
of  a  most  kindly  disposition,  and  ever  ready  to  help  others 
where  he  could.     All  the  poets  of  the  time,  however  jealous 
they  might  be  of  one  another,  found  in  his  friendship,  as  it 
were,  a  neutral  ground  on  which  they  could  meet.    The  same 
characteristics  of  Vergil  as  a  man  appear  also  in  his  poems. 
The  quiet  dignity  and  gentle  earnestness  which  pervade  all 
his  works  are  only  the  reflex  of  the  poet's  pure  and  peaceful 
soul.     Hence  he  is  most  successful  in  his  idyllic  and  senti- 
mental poetry,  where  he  describes  love,  domestic  and  country 
life.  But  by  his  very  nature  he  was  not  well  qualified  to  com- 
pose a  gi-and  epic  like  the  ^ndd,  which  he  undertook  only 
at  the  urgent  request  of  Augustus,  and  where  his  descriptions 
are  often  exaggerated,  unnatural,  and  forced.     He  possesses 
no  real  poetical   genius,  but  only  talent,  and  art   had  to 
supply  what  nature  had  refused  to  him.     The  Georgics  and 
the  jEneid  were  not  produced  without  hard  and  protracted 
labour— the   composition  of  the  Mieid  occupied  him  ten 
years.     Most  of  the  faults  as  well  as  the  excellencies  of 
Vergil  are  the  result  of  trying  to  do  by  art  that  which  -a 
real  genius  would  have  produced,  as  it  were,  spontaneously. 
Before  his  time  Roman  poets  had  regarded  the  form  of  their 
works  as  a  matter  of  secondary  importance;  but  Vergil,  as 
well  as  Horace,  considered  poetry  as  an  art,  which  allowed  of 
no  offence  against  euphony,  or  against  the  rules  of  language 
and  prosody.     By  this  thorough  correctness  in  every  respect 
Vergil  s  poetical  diction  and  style  became  the  model  for  all 
Mer  poets,  as  Cicero  had  become  the  standard  of  good  prose. 
But  Vergil  is  wanting  in  originality,  creative  power,  fresh- 


106 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  IV. 


ness,  and  simplicity.  Whatever  learning  and  industry  could 
do  he  has  done,  but  with  all  this  we  often  miss  the  genuine 
poetic  vein.     The  following  is  a  list  of  his  works  :— 

93.  Bucolica,  consisting  of  ten  eclogues,  which  were  written 
between  the  years  B.C.  42  and  37.  They  are  pastoral  poems 
written  in  imitation  of  Theocritus.  Natural  as  this  kind  of 
poetry  may  have  been  in  Sicily,  in  the  north  of  Italy  it  had 
no  natural  or  national  basis;  hence  the  persons  introduced 
by  Vergil  are  mere  figures,  devoid  of  the  natural  warmth 
and  life  we  find  in  the  characters  brought  before  us  in 
Theocritus.  What  made  these  idyls  popular  was  the  frequent 
allusion  to  pei-sons  and  occurrences  of  the  time,  and  to  inci- 
dents in  the  poet's  own  life.  The  difierent  eclogues  were  at 
first  published  separately;  but  afterwards  the  author  himself 
collected  and  published  them  in  the  form  in  which  they  have 
come  down  to  us. 

94.  Georgica,  in  four  books,  were  composed  between  the 
years  B.C.  37  and  30.     The  first  treats  of  agriculture,  the 
second  of  arboriculture,  the  third  of  cattle  breeding,  and  the 
fourth  of  bees.  The  subjects  of  this  poem  had  at  all  times  been 
of  great  interest  to  the  Romans,  and  must  have  been  more 
so  to  Vergil,  whose  early  years  had  been  spent  in  the  midst 
of  agricultui-al  pursuits.     Whether  he  wrote  the  Georgics  at 
the  request  of  others,  or  whether  the  thought  originated  in 
his  own  mind,  is  not  certain;  but  it  is  clear  that  his  heart 
and  soul  were  in  the  work;  for,  notwithstanding  the  dryness 
of  the  subject,  he  has  contrived  to  treat  it  with  a  warmth 
and  animation  which  could  only  spring  from  personal  ex- 
perience and  a  genuine  love  of  the  subject,  and  which  make 
us  inclined  to  regard  the  Georgics  as  Vergil's  best  work. 
His  object  in  composing  it  was  not  to  teach  agriculture, 
but  to  draw  men  towards  it  and  interest  them  in  it.     Such 
an  object  was  of  high  importance  at  a  time  when  large 
portions  of  Italy  had  been  ravaged  and  desolated  by  the 
civil  wars.     Vergil  in  this,  as  in  his  other  works,  seems  to 
have  carefully  studied  Greek  writers  on  the  same  subject. 

95.  The  jEiieis,  in  twelve  books,  was  begun  in  B.C.  30,  and 
not  finished  at  the  time  of  Vergil's  death;  but  published  by 
Varius  and  Plotius  Tucca.  Not  only  had  the  author  no 
opportunity  of  revising  his  work;  but  it  does  not  appear  even 


I 
1 


%c.  80-A.i>.  14.1  ^-  VERGltltS  MARO. 


107 


to  be  complete,  for  the  last  book  ends  with  the  victory  over 
Tumus,  and  does  not  contain  the  final  settlement  of  -^neas 
in  Latium  or  his  death,  which  evidently  formed  part  of  the 
plan  which  the  poet  had  proposed  to  himself.  The  hero  of 
the  poem  is  the  Trojan  ^neas,  who,  in  his  flight  from  Troy, 
after  many  wanderings  and  adventures,  lands  in  Latium, 
where  his  descendants  founded  in  Rome  a  second  Ilium. 
The  writers  of  the  Augustan  age,  from  flattery  towards 
Augustus,  did  their  best  to  inculcate  the  belief  that  the 
Romans  were  the  descendants  of  the  Trojans,  as  thereby 
they  connected  the  Julian  gens  with  lulus,  the  son  of  ^neas 
and  grandson  of  Venus,  and  thus  established  a  kind  of  divine 
right  in  the  person  of  Augustus.  Vergil  therefore,  no  doubt, 
was  complying  with  the  wish  of  the  emperor  when  he  under- 
took the  task.  The  subject  had  jbeen  treated  before  by 
Nsevius  and  Ennius,  but  never  in  such  a  connected  and 
complete  form,  so  that  Vergil  had  to  draw  upon  his  own 
resources;  and,  in  order  to  make  up  for  the  want  of  creative 
power,  he  made  most  extensive  studies  on  the  ancient  history 
and  institutions  of  Italy,  without  a  knowledge  of  which  the 
jEneid  cannot  be  rightly  understood.*  Out  of  these  legen- 
dary materials  and  a  vast  deal  of  antiquarian  learning, 
Vergil,  by  his  mastery  over  everything  connected  with  the 
form  of  poetry,  has  produced  a  work  which  surpasses  all  epic 
poems  that  were  produced  either  before  or  after  him;  and  has 
acquired  a  popularity  which  even  the  severe  criticisms  of 
modem  times  have  not  been  able  to  destroy.  Still,  however, 
even  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  the  poem  has  great  de- 
fects; but  in  speaking  of  them  we  must  not  forget  that  the 
poet  himself  was  conscious  of  them,  and  wished  the  work  to 
be  burned.  The  first  great  defect  is  the  want  of  originality: 
Homer's  Odyssey,  the  Cyclic  poets,  Apollonius  Rbodius, 
Nsevius,  and  Ennius  have  all  been  laid  under  contribution 
to  make  up  the  jEneid,  The  second  defect  is  that  the  poet 
continually  mixes  what  is  purely  mythical  with  the  ideas 
and  institutions  of  a  later  age,  and  mingles  Greek  with 
Roman  ideas.  The  consequence  of  this  is  that  the  poem 
lacks  life,  and  truth,  and  reality. 

*  For  this  reason  alone  it  is  an  utter  mistake  to  place  the  ^neid 
in  the  hands  of  beginners. 


108 


HISTORY  OF  Latin  literature.      [period  IV. 


96.    Smaller    Poems.  —  Vergil's    commentator,    Servius,f 
enumerates  eight  smaller  poems  which  were  attributed  to 
him : — 

a.  CuleXy  dedicated  to  Octavius,  in  412  hexameter  lines, 
contains  the  history  of  a  gnat,  which  stings  and  thereby 
rouses  a  sleeping  shepherd  and  saves  his  life ;  but  the  gnat 
is  killed  by  the  shepherd,  whereupon  its  ghost  appears  to  the 
shepherd  in  a  dream,  and  demands  and  obtains  an  honourable 
burial.  The  whole  of  this  playful  story  is  overladen  with 
mythological  and  rhetorical  embellishments,  in  the  style  of 
the  Alexandrians.  The  work  is  probably  the  first  that  Yergil 
ever  published;  its  genuineness  is  established  beyond  a 
doubt. 

6.  Giris  describes,  in  540  hexameter  lines,  the  story  of  the 
change  of  the  Megarian  princess,  Scylla,  into  the  bird,  Ciris, 
because  she  had  betrayed  her  father,  Nisus.  It  is  addressed 
to  Messala;  but  both  internal  evidence,  and  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  mentioned  by  any  contemporary  writer,  render  it 
probable  that  we  have  here  not  a  work  of  Vergil,  but  a  clever 
composition  of  some  one  of  the  Augustan  age  who  had  read 
the  j£!neid. 

d.  Moretum^  a  pleasing  idyll,  in  123  hexameter  lines, 
describing  how  a  peasant  rises  at  early  dawn,  bakes  his 
bread,  prepares  his  porridge,  and  then  proceeds  to  his  work. 
The  subject  is  one  which  Vergil  might  have  chosen ;  but  the 
author  surpasses  everything  that  Vergil  has  written  in  fresh- 
ness and  in  the  sharp  delineation  of  character.  It  may  have 
been  written  by  a  contemporary  of  Vergil,  but  possibly  by 
Vergil  himself  at  a  later  period.  The  language  and  versi- 
fication are  masterly. 

e.  Copa^  a  little  elegy,  in  form  and  style  entirely  Vergilian, 
but  the  merry  tone  of  the  poem  is  hardly  what  we  should 
expect  from  Vergil ;  the  poem,  however,  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  Augustan  age. 

f.  Catalectttf  a  collection  of  fourteen  poems,  in  elegiac  and 
iambic  metres,  on  various  subjects.  Some  of  them  are 
ascribed  to  Vergil  on  good  authority,  and  the  others  are  not 
unworthy  of  him ;  in  fact,  all  seem  to  have  been  written  in 
the  time  of  Vergil,  if  not  by  him. 

Other  works  which  are  ascribed  to  Vergil,  such  as  Pria- 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  Q.    HORATIUS  FLACCUS, 


109 


peia  and  DirWf  cannot  possibly  be  regarded  as  having  pro- 
ceeded from  his  pen. 

No  prose  work  of  Vergil  is  mentioned  except  his  correspon- 
dence with  Augustus,  which  seems  to  have  been  published.* 

97.  Q.  Horatius  Tlaccus,  born  at  Venusia  on  the  8th  of 
December,  b.c.  65,  was  the  son  of  a  freedman  who  possessed 
a  small  property  at  Venusia,  where  Horace  received  his  first 
education.  But  as  the  school  at  Venusia  did  not  appear  good 
enough  to  the  father,  he  took  his  son  to  Rome  and  there  had 
him  educated  by  the  best  teachers,  as  if  he  had  been  the  son 
of  an  eques  or  senator,  always  watching  his  son  and  guarding 
him  against  evil  influences.  Horace  had  learned  Greek  in 
his  native  place,  and,  about  b.c.  45,  he,  like  many  other  young 
Romans,  proceeded  to  Athens  to  complete  his  education 
under  the  philosophers  Theomnestus  and  Cratippus.  In  b.c. 
44,  Brutus,  after  the  murder  of  Caesar,  arrived  at  Athens, 
where  he  won  over  to  his  cause  all  the  young  Romans  who 
were  studying  there,  and  among  them  Horace,  who  accom- 
panied Brutus  to  the  war,  and  was  at  once  made  trihunus 
militum.  In  B.C.  42,  the  republican  party  being  defeated  at 
Philippi,  Horace  with  the  rest  took  to  flight,  but  did  not  join 
the  Pompeian  party.  Availing  himself  of  the  amnesty,  he 
returned  to  Rome;  but  as,  through  the  distribution  of  lands 
among  the  veterans,  he  was  deprived  of  his  patrimony,  he 
sought  and  obtained  the  office  of  a  quaestor's  clerk.  The 
poor  remunemtion  for  this  employment,  as  he  himself  says, 
caused  him  to  come  forward  as  a  poet,  having  already  gained 
some  reputation  by  satires  and  epodes.  Vergil  and  Varius 
introduced  him  to  Maecenas,  who,  about  the  beginning  of 
B.C.  38,  admitted  him  to  the  circle  of  his  friends,  and  was 
accompanied  by  him  on  his  journey  to  Brundisium  in  b.c. 
37.  A  few  years  later  Maecenas  gave  him  a  small  estate  in 
the  country  of  the  Sabines,  north  of  Tibur.  Through  the 
mediation  of  Maecenas  and  Asinius  Pollio,  Horace  became 
acquainted  with  Augustus,  who  wished  to  make  him  his 

*  There  are  innumerable  editions  of  the  works  of  Vergil,  the  best 
of  which  are  those  of  G.  Ph.  E.  Wagner,  1830-1832,  in  4  vols.  •  of  O 
Kibbeck:  Leipzig,  1859,  in  3  vols.;  and  of  J.  Connington:  London, 
1858,  3  vols.     A  good  school  edition  is  that  of  Th.  Ladewis.  4th 
edition:  Berlin,  1865. 


110 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [pERIOD  IV. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]  Q.    HORATIUS   FLACCUS. 


Ill 


private  secretary.     Horace  declined  the  offer,  that  he  might 
not  lose  his  personal  independence.    The  emperor  appears  not 
to  have  resented  this  refusal,  but  afterwards  only  complained 
that  Horace  never  mentioned  his  name  in  his  poems.     In 
the  coui-se  of  time,  however,  his  connection  with  Augustus 
became  more  intimate,  as  is  abundantly  shown  in  his  later 
productions.    His  friendship  with  Maecenas  also  continued  to 
the  end  of  his  life,  and  even  on  his  deathbed  Maecenas  is  sai(' 
to  have  implored  Augustus  not  to  forget  his  friend  Horace 
The  poet  died  sooij  after  his  patron,  on  the  27th  of  Novera 
ber,  B.C.  8,  so  suddenly  that  he  had  no  time  to  make  a  will 
but  only  declared,  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  that  h< 
wished  to  leave  all  he  possessed  to  Augustus.    He  was  buriec; 
on  the  Esquiline,  near  the  tomb  of  Maecenas. 

98.  Horace  was  short  and  stout,  and  his  hair  and  eye-. 
were  dark ;  during  the  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  he  wa,i 
often  ill,  and  at  times  hypochondriacal.  He  was  never  mar- 
ried, and  in  one  of  his  satires  he  himself  describes  how  he 
usually  spent  his  time.  As  regards  his  character  we  may 
briefly  describe  him  as  a  man  of  the  world  who  knew  his 
own  nature  well,  and  earnestly  strove  to  get  rid  of  qualities 
which  he  knew  to  be  bad.  He  never  allowed  himself  to  be 
overcome  by  a  feeling,  but  always  preserved  that  equal  tem- 
perament which  he  describes  as  nil  admirari.  He  loved  his  in- 
dependence; hence  he  was  ill  at  ease  in  the  bustle  of  the  city, 
where  so  many  things  had  to  be  considered ;  hence  he  avoided 
any  official  position  which  might  interfere  with  his  freedom, 
and  hence,  lastly,  he  never  married.  He  had  always  suffi- 
cient resources  within  himself;  but  his  kindly  nature  pre- 
served him  from  falling  into  selfishness  and  disregard  of  the 
feelings  of  others.  The  charge  of  immorality  which  is  often 
brought  against  him  does  not  apply  to  him  alone,  but  to  the 
age  in  which  he  lived.  He  was  neither  a  hero  nor  a  great 
man ;  but  he  did  not  claim  to  be  either  the  one  or  the  other. 
All  he  aimed  at  was  to  be  an  interesting  and  amiable  man  of 
the  world,  such  as  the  world  then  was,  and  that  object  he 
certainly  did  attain.  In  his  earlier  years  he  embraced  the 
philosophy  of  Epicurus,  because  it  seemed  to  justify  his  own 
doings ;  but  at  a  later  period  he  inclined  more  towards  the 
Stoics,  who  had  before  afforded  him  only  subjects  for  laugh- 


■\  ■ 


ter  and  merriment,  but  he  never  gave  himself  up  either  to 
one  system  or  the  other,  and  never  went  beyond  a  certain 
dilettantism. 

99.  Horace  began  his  literary  career  as  a  writer  of  satires, 
which,  like  Lucilius,  he  uses  as  the  vehicle  for  setting  forth 
his  own  personal  affairs  and  his  views  on  a  variety  of  sub- 
jects.  The  recent  political  events,  and  the  pai-t  he  had  taken 
in  them,  rendered  it  necessary  to  abstain  from  political  dis- 
cussion in  his  satires,  which  accordingly  treat  exclusively  of 
social  and  literary  questions.    He  therefore  criticises  and  ridi- 
cules perversities  and  absurdities  as  they  occur  in  ordinary  life; 
but  does  not  touch  the  actual  vices  of  his  time,  which  would 
have  required  a  different  treatment.    He  sometimes  discusses 
in  one  satire  different  matters,  which  apparently  have  no  con- 
nection ;  but  a  closer  examination  shows  that,  after  all,  they 
were  not  composed  without  a  definite  plan.     Most  of  the 
satires  in  the  second  book  were  written  in  the  form  of  dia- 
logues, and  show  a  higher  degree  of  artistic  skill  than  those 
of  the  first.     He  wrote  them  in  hexameter  verse,  after  the 
example  of  Lucilius ;  but  called  both  the  satires  and  epistles 
SevTiiones,  because  the  language  is  simply  that  of  ordinary 
conversation,  without  any  attempt  at  poetical  embellishment. 
^  The  Epodes  appear  to  have  been  written  about  the  same 
time  as  the  satires,  which  they  resemble  in  their  somewhat 
petulant  and  youthful  vehemence  and   aggressiveness,  but 
with  this  difference,  that  the  epodes  are  directed  against 
individual  persons,  while  the  satires  criticise  whole  classes 
and  conditions  of  men.     In  the  epodes  Horace  adopted  the 
lyric  metres,  and  shows  himself  as  an  independent  follower 
of  the  Greek  Archilochus.     The  later  epodes  show  a  more 
dispassionate  and  mature  mind,  and  resemble  his  odes  {car- 
mina)  so  much  that  they  might  be  classed  among  them. 

When  Horace  had  reached  the  age  of  about  thirty-five,  and 
had  acquii-ed  the  technical  skill  in  managing  the  lyric  metres 
which  he  had  already  tried  in  his  epodes,  he  resolved  to 
introduce  among  his  countrymen  the  poetry  of  AIcjeus  and 
Sappho  in  his  Carmina  or  Odes.  This  resolution  he  carried 
out  during  a  period  of  at  least  seven  years,  the  result  of 
which  were  the  first  three  books  of  odes.  Some  of  them  are 
close  imitations  of  his  Greek  originals,  while  the  later  ones 


112 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  IV, 


are  freer  and  more  independent,  and  are  sometimes  com- 
posed with  such  masterly  skill  that  the  reader  is  tempted  to 
regard  them  as  originals.  In  the  odes  we  perceive  the 
same  spirit  as  in  the  satires,  reflection  and  criticism,  and 
a  mind  in  many  ways  censuring  the  avarice,  extravagance, 
and  unbridled  licentiousness  of  the  times;  on  the  other 
hand  we  see  the  poet  himself  enjoying  with  moderation 
the  pleasures  of  life.  The  skill  displayed  in  these  composi- 
tions was  not  acquired  without  great  labour,  for  Horace, 
like  Vergil,  lacked  the  true  poetical  genius  and  enthusiasm, 
and  art  had  to  supply  what  nature  had  denied  him.  To 
the  first  three  books  of  odes  he  afterwards  added  a  fourth, 
the  poems  of  which  are,  as  far  as  their  form  is  concerned,  the 
most  perfect  of  all  his  compositions,  and  display  his  lyrical 
talent  in  the  most  brilliant  manner.  Wherever  he  describes 
his  own  feelings  he  rises  to  the  sublime.  In  his  lyric  poetry 
we  can  clearly  discern  three  stages ;  that  of  the  exercises  after 
Greek  models,  imitations  of  Greek  models,  and  lastly,  the 
independent  treatment  of  subjects  of  the  life  that  surrounded 
him,  or  of  his  own  thoughts  and  feelings.  The  form  is  every- 
where Greek.  His  language  is  of  exquisite  beauty,  harmony, 
and  euphony,  and  he  everywhere  hits  upon  the  right  word  to 
express  that  which  he  wishes  to  express. 

The  EpistleSf  which,  like  the  satires,  Horace  calls  SermoneSy 
resemble  them  also  in  their  character  and  form ;  but  they  are 
the  productions  of  a  riper  age :  they  show  greater  calmness 
and  earnestness,  and  gi-eater  care  is  taken  of  the  style  and 
versification.  They  are  indeed  addressed  to  definite  persons, 
but  most  of  them  go  beyond,  and  discuss  the  most  difierent 
relations  of  life  in  a  style  rich,  though  not  overladen,  with 
appropriate  rules  and  maxims.  They  contain  the  results  of 
a  long  experience,  stated  with  calmness  and  a  clear  view  of 
human  life.  Of  special  interest  are  those  treating  of  the 
poet's  relation  to  Maecenas;  others  explain  his  own  position 
in  literature,  recommending  the  imitation  of  the  perfection 
of  the  Greeks  in  matters  of  form,  as  opposed  to  the  capricious 
fancy  of  imitating  the  older  Roman  poets.  The  longest  and 
most  important  of  the  epistles  is  that  to  the  brothers  Piso, 
which  Quintilian  calls  Liber  de  arte  poetica,  and  in  which 
Horace,  without  pretending  to  give  a  complete  theory  of 


B.C.  80- A.  D.  14.] 


DOMITIUS  MARSUS. 


113 


poetical  composition,  discusses  a  number  of  literary  questions, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  drama.  His  remarks  are  very 
appropriate,  and  show  much  independence  of  judgment, 
though  here,  as  elsewhere,  he  was  building  upon  the  works 
of  Greeks.  , 

The  works  of  Horace  soon  became  extremely  popular,  and 
were  much  read  in  schools.  Scholars  and  grammarians  wrote 
commentaries  upon  them,  one  of  which,  the  commentary  of 
Porphp'io,  is  still  extant.* 

100.  The  literary  friends  and  contemporaries  of  Horace 
were  C.  Valgius  Eufus,  Aristius  Fuscus,  Fundanius,  Titius, 
and  Servius  Sulpicius,  all  of  whom  distinguished  themselves 
more  or  less  either  as  poets,  or  as  writers  on  rhetorical  or 
grammatical  subjects. 

1.  C.  Valgius  Bufus,  consul  in  b,c.  12,  is  spoken  of  as  a 
man  specially  qualified  to  rival  Homer  in  epic  poetry.  That 
he  was  the  author  of  elegies  and  epigrams  is  well  attested. 
He  further  wrote  grammatical  treatises  in  the  form  of  letters, 
and  a  Latin  work  on  rhetoric,  based  upon  a  Greek  treatise 
on  the  same  subject  by  Apollodorus  of  Pergamum;  but 
none  of  his  works  have  reached  our  time. 

2.  Aristius  Fuscus  is  said  to  have  composed  dramas,  either 
comedies  or  tragedies;  but  is  known  to  have  written  a  book 
on  grammar,  which  was  dedicated  to  Asinius  Pollio 

3.  Fundanius  seems  to  have  written  comedies,  of  which, 
however,  not  a  fragment  now  remains. 

4.  Titius  is  spoken  of  as  a  lyric  poet  of  a  high  order,  and  as 
a  tragic  writer;  but  it  is  not  known  whether  he  ever  published 
anything. 

6.  Servius  Sulpicius  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  erotic 
poetry;  otherwise  nothing  is  known  about  him,  except  that 
Horace  mentions  him  among  his  learned  friends. 

101.  Domitius  Marsus,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Hor- 
ace, who,  however,  never  mentions  him,  survived  Vergil 
and  Tibullus,  but  died  long  before  the  banishment  of  Ovid, 

*  The  discussions  on  the  life  of  Horace,  on  the  time  when  the  diflFer- 
ent  poems  were  written,  and  the  editions  of  his  works,  are  countless. 
The  best  modem  editions  of  his  collected  works  are  those  of  Orelli 
.  3rd  edition,  1850,  in  2  vols.;  and  the  school  editions  of  Macleane! 
Dilleuburger,  Duntzer,  and  a  host  of  others. 


114 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  fpERIOD  IV. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14]  SEXTUS   PROPERTIUS. 


115 


)  I 


which  took  place  in  a.d.  9.  He  was  a  friend  of  Maecenas, 
and  the  forerunner  of  Martial,  as  the  author  of  sharp  and 
cutting  epigrams,  a  collection  of  which  seems  to  have  been 
entitled  Cicuta.  He  also  wrote  erotic  poems,  one  of  which 
was  called  Melcenis;  an  epic  poem  entitled  Amazonis  Fahellce; 
and  a  rhetorical  work,  De  Urbanitate.* 

Other  poets  of  this  period  were  Anser^  author  of  erotic 
songs;  Codrus,  a  friend  of  Vergil's,  and  apparently  the 
author  of  elegies;  Bavius  and  MceviuSy  opponents  of  Vergil; 
Pupius,  author  of  sentimental  tragedies;  and  C.  Melissus,  a 
freedman  of  Msecenas,  and  a  native  of  Spoletium,  who  was 
appointed  by  Augustus  superintendent  of  the  library  in  the 
portico  of  Octavia,  and  wrote  books  of  Irieptice  or  Joel.  He 
further  introduced  a  new  kind  of  comedies  which  he  called 
TraheatCG.  ' 

102.  Albius  Tibullus  wa/the  most  distinguislied  among 
the  wrifers  of  elegies  during  iKe  time  of  Augustuy  He  was 
a  man  of  equestrian  rank,  and  born  at  Rome;  but  the  year 
of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  and  all  we  know  is  that  he  died,  as 
a  young  man,  soon  after  Vergil.  The  assignment  of  lands  to 
the  veterans,  after  the  battle  of  Philippi,  appears  to  have 
caused  some  loss  to  his  father,  but  still  to  have  left  enough 
to  the  son  to  live  contentedly  and  comfortably.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Valerius  Messala,  whom  he  seems  to  have 
accompanied  in  the  war  of  Actium;  afterwards,  when  Mes- 
sala accompanied  Octavianus  to  Egypt,  Tibullus,  who  was 
with  him,  being  taken  ill  remained  in  Corcyra.  At  a  later 
period,  however,  he  again  accompanied  Messala  in  the  war 
against  the  Aquitanians.  After  B.C.  27,  Tibullus  does  not 
seem  to  have  left  Italy.  He  is  described  by  Horace  as  a 
handsome  and  amiable  man,  and  as  possessed  of  ample  means. 
(in  his  elegies  he  followed  the  Alexandrian  poets,  inas- 
much as  he  treated  almost  exclusively  of  erotic  subjects;  but 
instead  of  tl^ir  dry  learning,  his  poems  breathe  deep  and 
warm  feeling^.  His  (language  is  natural  and  simple,  yet 
he  describes  with  consummate  skill  the  various  moods  of 
a  longing  soul.)  I  His  love  of  quiet  country  life  J  and  his 
deep  longing  for  loving  sympathy,  impart  to  his  poems  a 

*  The  remains  of  his  works  are  collected  in  Weichert's  Poetarun^ 
Jjat.  VitcBf  etc.,  p.  264,  foil. 


T 


0 


tone  of  gentle  sadness^  The  best  elegies  are  those  addressed 
to  his  beloved  Delia;  others  have  evidently  not  received  the 
author's  final  revision,  which  was  prevented  by  his  sudden 
death. 

The  person  who  first  published  the  elegies  of  Tibullus 
added  some  others  which  had  been  composed  by  friends  of 
Messala,  viz.,  those  of  Sulpicia,  and  those  of  one  Lygdamus 
which  form  the  third  book.  This  book,  which  contains  six 
poems,  is  the  production  of  younger  contemporaries  and 
imitators  of  Tibullus,  but  without  his  talent.* 

103.  SextUS  Propertius  likewise  wrote  elegies  about  the 
same  time.     He  was  born,  about  B.C.  50,  in  Umbria.  per- 
haps in  the  town  of  Asisium.     There  is  no  allusion  in  his 
poems  to  any  event  after  the  year  B.C.  16,  but  this  does  not 
enable  us  to  fix  the  year  of  his  death.     He  lost  his  father 
and  a  large  portion  of  his  patrimony  at  an  early  period,  and 
was  left  to  the  care  of  his  mother,  who  indulged  him  in 
every  way,  so  that  instead  of  preparing  himself  for  any 
serious  pursuit,  he  was  allowed,  even  as  a  youth,  to  plunge 
into  the  pleasures  and  frivolities  of  the  capital,  where  he 
attracted  some  notice  among  certain  classes  as  a  poetical 
genius.    He  therefore  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  service 
of  the  muses,  of  friends,  and  to  his  love  for  Cynthia  and 
others.     After  having  published  some  of  his  poems,  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Maecenas,  and  lived  near  him  on  the 
Esquiline,  but  being  much  younger  than  Maecenas,  he  could 
not  form  as  intimate  a  connection  with  him  as  did  Vergil 
and  Horace.     He  was  urged  by  his  influential  friend  \o 
write  epic  poetry  on  the  events  of  the  time;  but  had  good 
sense  enough  to  see  that  such  an  undertaking  was  beyond 
his  ppwers.     He  not  only  took  no  part  in  public  life,  but 
even(^n  his  private  relatipns  he  was  more  effeminate  and 
luxurious  than  most  mon^  {Amorousness  is  the  fundamental 
feature  of  his  character!  he  indulges  in  sentimentality  even 
where  his  love  is  not  requited;  he  is  jealous  and  submissive, 
and  wishes  to  die  in  the  arms  of  his  beloved.    He  often  speaks 
of  his  ill  health  and  sleeplessness,  which  may  have  been  the 

*  The  best  critical  edition  of  Tibullus  is  that  of  C.  Lachmann  (to- 
gether with  the  poems  of  CatuUus  and  Propertius):  Berlin,  1829:  and 
that  of  L.  Dissen:  Gottin^en,  1835,  in  2  vols. 


116 


HISTORY  OP   LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  IV. 


cause  of  his  sentimentality,  as  well  as  the  resnlt  of  his  mode 
of  life.  OSis  poems,  being  imitations  of  the  Alexandrians, 
are  full  of  mythological  learning,  and  often  difficult  to  under- 
stand; but  he  often  surpasses  his  models  in  freshness  and 
passionateness^    His  style  i\nd  versification  are  correct  and 

vigorous.  . 

The  chronological  arrangement  of  his  poems,  and  their 
division  into  books,  have  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  scholai-s, 
and  while  some  distribute  them  into  four  books,  others  have 
arranged  them  into  five.  They  are  often  piinted  together 
with  the  works  of  Catulhis  and  Tibullus.* 

104.  Publius  Ovidius  Naso  was  born  on  the  20th  of  March 
B.C.  43,  at  Sulmo  in  the  country  of  the  Pelignians.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  a  wealthy  father.  Together  with  his 
brother,  who,  however,  died  in  his  twentieth  year,  he  studied 
at  Rome  imder  the  most  eminent  teachers,  such  as  Porcius 
Latro,  and  Arellius  Fuscus.  At  the  request  of  his  father  he 
pursued  rhetorical  studies,  though  he  found  greater  attractions 
in  poetry.  He  did,  indeed,  for  some  time  devote  himself  to 
public  business,  for  he  held  the  offices  of  triumvir  capitalis 
and  centumvir,  but  he  had  little  taste  for  business,  and  pre- 
ferred the  society  and  conversation  of  the  poets  of  his  time, 
among  whom  he  mentions  -^milius  Macer,  Propertius, 
Ponticus,  Bassus,  and  Horace.  At  Rome  he  made  himself 
known  even  at  an  early  age  by  erotic  poems,  and  gave  him- 
self up  to  the  voluptuous  pleasures  of  the  time.  He  himself 
states  that  he  went  to  Athens  and  Asia  to  complete  his 
education.  He  had  already  reached  the  age  of  fifty,  when 
he  was  sent  by  Augustus  into  banishment  to  Tomi,  a  town 
on  the  north-west  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  was  a  relegatio 
not  exiliu7ii,  and  he  retained  the  possession  of  his  property. 
Ovid  mentions  the  cause  of  this  banishment  only  in  a 
general  way  as  carmen  et  error.  The  carmen  was  no  doubt 
his  poem  entitled  Ars  Amandin  which  Augustus  considered 
dangerous  to  morals;  Ovid  himself  often  alludes  to  it,  and 
endeavours  to  justify  himself.  The  second  cause,  the  error y 
he  does  not  explain,  but  from  various  allusions  to  it  in  his 

♦  The  best  editions  of  Propertius  are  that  of  C.  Lachmaim:  Berlin, 
1829;  and  more  especially  that  of  W.  A.  B.  Hertzberg,  in  2  vols. ; 
HaUe,  1843-45. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.]         ttJBLIUS   OVimUS  NASO. 


117 


i 


poems,  we  must  infer  that  Ovid  had  seen  something  or 
assisted  in  something  which  was  painful  or  disgraceful  to 
the  imperial  family,  and  it  is  commonly  supposed  that  Ovid 
had  been  an  accomplice  in  the  adultery  of  Julia,  the  grand- 
daughter of  Augustus,  with  D.  Silanus.  In  the  autumn  of 
A.D.  9,  Ovid  left  Rome,  and  went  to  his  place  of  exile.  His 
whole  life  had  been  spent  at  Rome  in  the  society  of  his 
friends,  and  the  removal  from  it  to  a  semi-barbarous  country 
was  more  than  his  efieminate  nature  could  bear,  and  he 
wrote  the  most  pitiful,  humiliating  letters  to  Rome,  begging 
to  be  allowed  to  return,  or  at  least  to  go  to  another  place  of 
banishment.  At  last  the  emperor,  either  moved  or  wearied 
by  the  incessant  entreaties,  made  up  his  mind  to  recall  him, 
but  was  prevented  by  death,  in  a.d.  14,  from  carrying 
out  his  plan.  His  successor,  Tiberius,  turned  a  deaf  ear  to 
the  petitions  and  flatteries  of  the  poet,  who  accordingly  died 
at  Tomi,  in  a.d.  17,  the  same  year  in  which  Livy  breathed 
his  last.  Ovid  had  been  married  three  times,  and  his  third 
wife,  who  remained  true  to  him  during  his  exile,  survived 
him;  his  father  and  mother  had  died  long  before. 

105j(t)vid  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  poets  of  his  time,  and 
possessed  the  most  extraordinaiy  facility  in  composing  verses^? 
he  himself  says  that  whatever  he  tried  to  say  turned  out  to 
be  verses.  He  calls  himself  the  fourth  Roman  writer  of 
elegies,  and  this  is  really  his  chief  characteristic;  for  it  is  in 
elegy,  especially  the  erotic  elegy,  that  his  peculiar  character 
is  most  clearly  set  forth,  (jle  is  susceptible  to  all  sensual  im- 
pressions and  dependent  on  them;  his  character  has  no  true 
moral  foundation,  and  hence  its  weakness  J\any  feeling, 
whether  of  joy  or  of  .pain,  completely  oveq)Owers  him. 
Notwithstanding  this,  ttus  feelings  are  never  deep,  he  only 
plays,  without  earnestness  and  without  concern,  with  the 
great  problems  of  lifer)^ence  his  poems  are  not  the  product 
of  artistic  labour  and  diligent  study,  but  the  spontaneous 
outpourings  of  a  too  fertile  imagination^  We  find  in  him  no 
trace  of  the  sadness  of  those  writers  who  had  witnessed  the 
last  struggles  of  the  republic  and  the  rising  power  of 
absolutism.  He  had  been  bom  with  the  monarchy,  and  knew 
no  other  Rome  than  the  monarchical,  where  peace  had  pro- 
duced stagnation. 


118 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.        [PERIOD  iV. 


i 


The  following  is  a  list  of  his  poems  in  the  probable  chrono- 
logical order  of  their  composition  and  publication : — 

1.  AmoreSy  in  three  books,  consists  of  a  series  of  erotic  pic- 
tures, full  of  sensuality,  connected  with  the  name  of  Corinna. 
They  probably  contain,  for  the  most  part,  the  poet's  own 
experiences.  He  had  at  first  published  an  edition  in  five 
books,  which  he  afterwards  reduced  to  three. 

2.  Epistolce,  sometimes  called  Heroides,  a  series  of  fictitious 
love  letters,  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  ancient 
heroines  to  their  absent  lovers.  This  kind  of  poetical  epistle 
was  first  devised  by  Ovid;  their  number  is  twenty-one;  but 
the  genuineness  of  some  is  very  doubtful. 

3.  Medicamina  Faciei j  a  fragment  of  100  lines,  on  the 
arts  of  a  lady's  toilet. 

4.  Ars  Amatoriaj  or  Ars  Amandi,  in  three  books,  contains 
instructions  for  lovers  of  both  sexes,  how  to  form  and  keep  up 
such  connections.  The  females,  of  whom  the  poet  speaks, 
seem  to  be  mainly  lihertince.  He  took  up  this  subject  with 
evident  gusto,  and  displays  in  a  pleasing  manner  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  world,  and  especially  of  the  female  sex.  It 
has  already  been  mentioned  that  Augustus,  though  himself 
anything  but  a  moral  man,  thought  such  a  work  dangerous 
to  his  schemes  of  reform  and  of  encouraging  matrimony. 

5.  Eemedia  Ammisy  in  one  book,  contains  instructions  about 
the  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  troublesome  passion  of  love. 
It  is  more  diSuse  than  the  Ars  Amatoria;  but  composed 
with  the  same  technical  skill.  These  erotic  works,  all 
of  which  are  written  in  the  elegiac  metre,  were  published 
before  the  author's  banishment.  He  also  wrote  a  tragedy, 
Medea,  which  is  much  praised  by  ancient  critics,  but  of 
which  nothing  has  come  down  to  our  time. 

The  following  work,  which  belongs  to  a  later  period  of  the 
poet's  life,  is  the  only  one  written  in  hexameters : — 

6.  Metamorphoses,  in  fifteen  books,  are  a  collection  of 
those  myths,  which  contain  accounts  of  changes  from  one 
form  into  another,  from  chaos  down  to  the  metamorphosis  of 
Julius  Csesar  into  a  star.  The  subjects  are  of  course  taken 
from  Greek  sources,  but  treated  with  great  freedom.  They 
form  a  series  of  bright  and  dark  pictures  from  a  world  big 
with  wonders  and  miracles.     Ovid  himself  relates  that  on 


tX.  80-A.D.  14.]         PUBLIUS  OVIDIUS  NASO. 


119 


his  departure  for  Tomi,  he  burnt  his  manuscript;  but  re- 
stored it  during  his  exHe,  and  published  it  without  any  care- 
ful revision.  ,     .  •  .    /?  i  i.i. 

7.  Tristia,  in  five  books,  and  m  elegiacs,  consist  of  lettei-s 
which  he  wrote  on  his  journey  to  and  at  Tomi;  they  are  tail 
of  touching  descriptions  of  his  wretched  situation,  of  his 
regrets,  and  urgent  requests  for  pardon.  One  letter  to 
Augustus,   and  those  to  his  wife,   are  most  touching  and 

beautiful.  ^     ,  ^  .  , 

8.  UpistoIcB  ex  Ponto,  in  four  books,  are  of  the  same  char- 
acter as  the  Tristia,  but  differ  from  them  by  the  circumstance 
that  the  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed  are  named  at 
the  head  of  each  letter,  whHe  in  those  of  the  Tristia  the 
names  are  discreetly  omitted.  As  the  subject  is  ever  the 
same,  we  cannot  help  admiring  the  poet's  inexhaustible  re- 
sources  of  language,  and  the  variety  of  forms  m  which  he 
expresses  his  thoughts  and  feelings,  although  the  composition 
is  not  free  from  all  kinds  of  carelessness,  which  can  only  be 
excused  by  the  depressed  and  desponding  state  of  the  author  s 

"^9  'ihis,  in  one  book,  is  in  form  an  elegy,  but  its  subject  is  a 
passionate  attack  upon  some  enemy  at  Rome,  in  which  various 
mythological  subjects  are  introduced. 

Durincr  his  exile,  Ovid  wrote  several  smaller  poems  which 
are  now'' lost,  one  on  the  triumph  of  Tiberius;  another 
in  the  language  of  the  Get«,  among  whom  he  lived  m 
honour  of  Augustus;  and  a  third  on  the  death  of  Augustus. 
Lastly,  he  wrote  a  book  entitled  Halieutica,  of  which  a  con- 
siderable fragment  in  hexameters  still  exists.  It  was  lett 
by  the  poet  in  an  incomplete  state,  and  was  not  published 
till  after  his  death.  The  fragment  treats  of  the  kinds  of 
fishes  found  in  the  Euxine,  but  is  of  no  particular  value. 

The  most  important  work  of  Ovid,  from  an  historical  and 

antiquarian  point  of  view  is —  ,  ^  i  •    x     i 

10  The  Fasti,  which  was  to  have  been  completed  in  twelve 
books,  each  treating  of  one  month;  but  its  completion  was 
prevented  by  the  author's  banishment,  as  at  the  place  of  his 
exile  he  had  no  means  of  consulting  the  authorities  on  which 
the  work  had  to  be  founded.  Only  the  first  half  of  it  was 
left  by  Ovid  in  a  tolerably  finished  state,  and  was  published 


120 


SlSTOIlt  OP  LATIN  LlTERATtJRE.        [PERIOD  IV. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


M.  MANILIUS. 


121 


after  his  death.  The  work  is  a  kind  of  calendar,  in  which 
the  different  sidereal  phenomena  of  each  month,  and  the 
various  festivals  occurring  in  it  are  described,  with  their 
origin  and  their  mode  of  celebration.  The  astronomical  part 
shows  that  Ovid  was  not  well  acquainted  with  that  branch 
of  his  subject;  but  the  historical  and  archaeological  part  is 
worked  out  with  greater  care,  and  is  based  upon  the  ancient 
annals,  the  public  Fasti,  and  on  the  works  of  Varro  and 
others.  Some  information  may  have  been  derived  from 
popular  traditions  cuiTent  among  the  people  of  Rome. 
Although  Ovid  has  treated  the  subject  with  poetical  freedom, 
still  the  work  is  to  us  a  mine  of  antiquarian  information.* 

106.  Among  the  friends  of  Ovid  who  likewise  wrote 
poetry,  are — 

1.  Fonticus,  who  composed  an  epic  poem,  Thebais. 

2.  TuticanuSf  who  translated  Homer's  Odyssey. 

3.  Macer^  who  wrote  epic  poetry  on  subjects  preceding  the 
anger  of  Achilles,  and  the  events  subsequent  to  those  of  the 
Iliad,  that  is,  Antehomerica  and  Posthomerica.  This  Macer 
may  possibly  be  the  Pompeius  Macer  to  whom  Augustus  en- 
trusted the  arrangement  of  the  libraries. 

4.  SahinuSy  who  wrote  epistles  in  reply  to  the  Heroides  of 
Ovid,  and  a  work  which  seems  to  have  resembled  the  Fasti 
of  Ovid,  but  was  never  finished  in  consequence  of  the  death 
of  Sabinus. 

5.  Cornelius  Severus,  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  the 
Sicilian  war  against  Sextus  Pompeius.  A  few  fragments  of 
his  are  collected  in  Wernsdorfs  Foetce  Lat.  Minor es,  p.  217, 
foil. 

6.  Fedo  Alhinovanus,  who  wrote  an  epic  poem,  Theseis, 
and  another  on  the  maritime  expedition  of  Germanicus,  of 
which  a  considerable  fragment  of  twenty-four  hexameter 
lines  is  still  extant. 

Besides  these,  several  others  tried  their  skill  in  composing 
epic  poetry  on  mythical  subjects,  or  on  events  of  their  own 

*  The  collected  works  of  Ovid  have  often  been  published;  a  good 
text  of  all  of  them  is  that  edited  by  R.  Merkel:  Leipzig,  1851,  in  3 
vols.  The  same  scholar  has  edited  the  Fasti  with  a  valuable  intro- 
duction: BerUn,  1851.  An  excellent  school  edition  of  the  Fasti  is 
that  by  A.  F.  Paley.  The  Metamorphoses  have  been  edited  innumer- 
able times  for  school  use. 


i 


4   I 


I 


time  in  the  style  of  the  Alexandrians;  but  little  or  nothing 
is  known  of  them,  except  that  their  names  are  mentioned  by 
Ovid  or  by  the  grammarians.  Most  of  them  did  not  rise  above 
mediocrity. 

107.  During  this  period  we  meet  with  two  didactic 
poets : 

1.  Gratius  Faliscus,  who  wrote  a  didactic  poem  on  the 
art  of  hunting  (Cynegetica),  of  which  a  large  portion  is  still 
extant;  it  is  generally  printed  together  with  Ovid's  Ilali- 
eutica.  The  style  is  dry  and  heavy,  and  rarely  rises  to  any- 
thing like  genuine  poetry.* 

2.  M.  Manilius  wrote  a  work  entitled  Astronomica  in  five 
books.  Of  his  personal  history  nothing  is  known,  but  from 
the  awkwardness  of  his  style,  especially  in  the  first  books,  it 
has  been  inferred  that  he  was  a  foreigner.  He  possesses  ex- 
tensive geographical  knowledge,  and  is  acquainted  with  Greek 
literature.  His  work  must  have  been  written  between  a.d. 
9  and  14,  i.e.,  before  the  death  of  Augustus.  The  author 
has  a  superstitious  belief  in  astrology,  otherwise  his  style  is 
serious  and  thoughtful,  and  much  resembles  that  of  Lucretius, 
though  his  versification  is"  more  technically  correct.  Parts 
of  the  work  approach  the  sublime,  especially  where  he  speaks 
of  man  and  man's  reason  and  discontent.! 

In  other  departments  of  poetry,  also,  the  later  period  of 
Augustus'  reign  is  very  barren,  and  those  who  did  attempt 
to  write  poetry  would  scarcely  be  known  even  by  name,  if 
they  were  not  mentioned  by  Ovid  in  his  letters  from  Tomi, 
such  as  Proculus,  Bassus,  Rufus,  Turranius,  and  Gracchus. 

108.  Among  the  prose  writers  of  the  Augustan  age  the 
historians  occupy  the  foremost  rank.  We  have  already  seen 
how  Augustus  himself,  and  seveml  of  the  most  eminent  men 
of  his  court,  wrote  either  autobiographies  or  the  lives  of  others, 
or  histories  of  recent  times ;  and  we  know  that  Asinius  Pollio 
undertook  to  write  an  extensive  work  on  the  civil  ware,  but 
gave  it  up,  because  it  was  dangerous  to  give  a  faithful  and 

*  A  good  edition  is  that  of  M.  Haupt,  together  with  Ovid's  Halieu- 
tica  and  other  similar  works:  Leipzig,  1838. 

t  The  best  editions  of  Manilius  are  those  of  Jos.  Scaliger:  Leyden, 
1600,  with  an  extensive  commentary;  of  R.  Bentley:  London,  1739; 
and  Fr.  Jacob:  Berlin,  1846. 


122  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITEEATCEE.  [PEBIOD  iV. 

impaitial  account.  Others,  like  Sulpicius  Galba  ?nd  Octa- 
vius  Musa,  seem  to  have  written  Boman  histories  m  the  cJd 
fashion,  and  Cincius  probably  wrote  a  «i^?^\^f  ^^^  7!*; 
the  vieV  of  flattering  the  family  of  the  Julu;  but  by  far  the 
most  important  prose  writer  of  the  time  is 

Titus  Livius,  of  Patavium  (Padua),  in  the  fertile  plain  of 
the  Lower  Po ;  he  was  bom  in  B.C.  59,  when  Patavium  already 
possessed  the  Boman  franchise,  and  Livy  was  accordmgly  by 
Ch  a  Boman  citizen.    He  died,  a.d.  17,  m  the  fourth  year 
of  the  reign  of  Tiberius.     His  youth  was  thus  passed  during 
the  last  civil  wars,  whUe  his  best  years  belong  to  the  reign 
of  Augustus.     During  the  wars  between  Caesar  and  Pompey 
?he   Patavinians    sid°  d  with    the    latter,   and    Livy  thus 
formed  in  his  youth  the  political  opinions  ^l^^^^^e  after- 
wards did  not  hesitate  to  avow  in  his  history     At  <irst  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  phUosophy 
and  in  both  he  produced  works  which  ranked  among  the 
test,   but  history  also  seems  from  the  first  to  have  had 
Seat  attractions  for  him,  and  to  it  he  devoted  the  best  part 
of  his  life.     He  must  have  commenced  his  great  work  on  tbe 
WBtory  of  Bome  between  the  years  b.c.  27  and  25,  and  the 
SeTevent  he  mentions  in  it  is  the  death  -d  Wl  of 
Drusus  which  took  place  in  B.C.  9.     The  whole  of  the  his- 
STfrom  the  earliest  times  to  the  death  of  Drusus,  was 
contained  in  142  books;  but  it  is  very  probable  that  Livy 
^tended  to  continue  it  to  the  death  of  Augustus,  in  150 
Tooks,  which  would  make  exactly  fifteen  decades,  for  the 
work  was  also  divided  into  decades,  each  compr^mg  ten 
teo^.     It  would  further  appear  that  Livy  published  each 
decade  separately.     He  himself  calls  his  work  sometimes 
Sy  ^»»»''».  ^"*  others  call  it  lies  Ecynu^rm  ab  urbe  Con- 
dita  or  Ab  urbe  Condita  Libri. 

6i  this  voluminous  work  only  thirty-five  books  are  pre- 
served,  namely,  the  first  decade,  and  from  Book  AAi.  to 
Book  XLV. ;  of  some  of  the  others  we  possess  only  frag- 
ments. Some  slight  compensation  for  what  is  lost  is  afforded 
by  brief  summaries  {p^ioch<^)  of  140  books  the  author  of 
which  is  unknown,  though  they  are  generaUy  asm^^d  to 
Florus.  The  cause  of  the  irreparable  loss  of  the  greater  part 
of  Livy's  work  was  no  doubt  partly  its  great  bulk  and  paj:tly 


t.c.  80-A.D.  14.] 


(TITUS   lIVIUS. 


123 


0 


the  fact  that  booksellers  and  others  copied  those  parts  only 
which  were  most  commonly  read  in  the  schools. 

The  great  reputation  which  Livy  enjoyed,  even  during  his 
lifetime,  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  a  stranger  from  Gades 
(Cadiz)  travelled  to  Rome  solely  that  he  might  have  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  great  historian.  The  same  is  further 
proved  by  the  fact  that  Augustus,  though  he  called  him  a 
Pompeian,  entertained  friendly  feelings  towards  him,  and 
allowed  him  to  influence  the  education  of  Claudius  (after- 
wards emperor). 

History,  in  Livy's  opinion,  was  not  so  much  concerned 
about  recording  facts,  as  to  point  out  what  was  instructive 
and  deserving  of  imitation;  and  he  wrote  the  history  of  Rome 
because  it  seemed  to  him  beyond  all  others  rich  in  great 
examples  of  virtue  and  patriotism.  Yet  with  all  this  he  is 
by  no  means  pedantic ;  his  poetic  temperament  and  his  keen 
sympathy  with  the  religious  and  moral  motives  of  human 
actions  prevented  his  falling  into  that  mistake.  Few  histo- 
rians have  as  lively  an  appreciation  of  great  historical  charac- 
ters as  Livy;  he  describes  and  follows  them  with  loving 
sympathy  down  to  the  end  of  their  career.  The  same  noble 
mind  shows  itself  in  the  masterly  manner  in  which  he 
describes  the  tender  feelings  of  love  and  affection.  It  is 
impossible  to  conceive  a  more  fascinating  narrator,  and  the 
speeches  he  puts  into  the  mouths  of  his  heroes  are  often  true 
masterpieces  of  oratory.  His  object  was  to  produce  a  pleas- 
ing, popular,  and  instructive  history,  and  that  object  he 
fully  attained;  but  aiming  on  the  whole  at  this  only,  he 
did  not  concern  himself  much  about  the  laborious  searching 
among  and  sifting  of  historical  documents,  or  about  visiting 
the  localities  of  great  historical  events.  He  was  satisfied 
with  following  and  repeating  in  his  own  way  the  statements 
of  his  predecessors,  such  as  Fabius  Pictor  and  Polybius,  or 
even  much  inferior  authorities.  Another  defect  is,  that  he 
had  no  clear  idea  of  constitutional  or  military  affairs.  Many 
mistakes  appear  to  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that  at  the 
outset  he  had  no  clear  command  of  his  whole  subject,  but 
studied  it  from  year  to  year  as  he  proceeded.  But  with  all 
-» these  drawbacks  it  is  quite  evident  that  he  intended  to  tell 
the  truth,  and  that  he  never  knowingly  or  intentionally 


124 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD   IV. 


B.a  80-A.D.  14.]  M.   VERRIUS  FLACCUS. 


125 


violated  it.  Where  he  does  so  he  is  only  misled  by  the  ideaa 
he  had  formed  of  the  character  of  political  parties.  He 
favoured  that  of  the  optimates,  and  fearlessly  expressed 
his  opinions,  even  in  the  presence  of  Augustus.  In  his  style 
and  language  we  sometimes  miss  the  strictly  classical  charac- 
ter, but  his  language  is  always  animated  and  in  good  taste, 
and  suited  to  the  subject  under  discussion.  What  the  Pata- 
vinitas,  with  which  Asinius  Pollio  charged  him,  refers  to,  is 
unknown.  Besides  his  great  historical  work,  Livy  also  pub- 
lished philosophical  discussions  and  dialogues,  which  Seneca 
ranks  next  to  the  philosophical  writings  of  Cicero  and 
Asinius  Pollio;  but  these  works  are  all  lost.* 

109.  Pompeius  Trogus  flourished  about  the  same  time  as 
Livy.      His   family   belonged   to   the   Gallic   tribe   of  the 
Vocontii;  but  his  grandfather,  who  had  served  under  Pompey 
in  the  war  against  Sertorius,  received  the  franchise  and  the 
name  of  Pompeius  from  his  chief.     His  father,  however, 
served  under  Julius  Caesar,  and  was  employed  by  him  in  a 
variety  of  ways.     Beyond  these  facts  we  know  nothing  about 
the  life  of  Pompeius  Trogus.     He  wrote  a  universal  history 
in  forty-four  books,  entitled  Historic^  PhilippiccB,  in  which  he 
dwelt  more  especially  on  the  history  of  Macedonia  and  of  the 
successors  of  Alexander  the  Great.     The  history  of  Rome 
played  a  subordinate  part  in  the  work,  probably  because 
Livy's  history,  or  portions  of  it,  had  already  been  published. 
The  latest  event  mentioned  in  it  was  the  sending  back  of  the 
Roman  standards  by  the  Parthians  in  B.C.  20.     This  great 
work  itself  is  lost,  but  we  possess  an  abridgment  of  it,  made 
by  Justinus,  who  lived  about  A.D.  160,  in  the  time  of  the 
Antonines.    This  abridgment  seems  to  have  satisfied  the  later 
Romans,  in  consequence  of  which  the  work  of  Trogus  was 
forgotten  and  lost.     The  animated  style  of  the  original  is 
still  visible  in  the  epitome  of  Justinus,  and  in  the  few  frag- 
ments of  it  which  are  quoted  by  grammarians.! 

♦  The  best  editions  of  all  that  is  extant  of  Livy  are  those  of  Dra- 
kenborch:  Amsterdam,  1730-1746,  m  7  quarto  vols.;  and  A.  Weis- 
senborn:  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  1853,  in  10  vols.,  who  has  also  published 
a  good  edition  of  the  text  alone  in  Teubner's  collection.  School  edi- 
tions of  separate  books  are  very  numerous.  .  -r.  -.^  v 
N  t  The  best  editions  of  Justinus  abridgment  are  those  of  Fr.  Dubner; 
Leipzig,  1831,  in  2  vols.j  and  of  J.  Jeep:  Leipzig,  1859. 


' 


i 


Trogus  also  wrote  a  work,  De  AnimalihuSj  consisting  of  at 
least  ten  books,  which  seems 'to  have  been  little  more  than  a 
somewhat  inaccurate  translation  of  Aristotle,  and  a  work, 
De  Plantis,  probably  based  on  Theophrastus. 

110.  Other  historians  of  the  same  period  are — 

1.  Fe7iesteUa,  a  careful  inquirer  into  the  history  and  anti- 
quities of  Rome,  flourished  during  the  later  part  of  the  reign 
of  Augustus;  he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy,  in  the  sixth  year 
of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  was  buried  at  Cumse.  He  must, 
therefore,  have  been  born  in  B.C.  52.  His  work  seems  to 
have  been  entitled  Annates ;  it  is  very  frequently  referred 
to,  and  treated  of  the  religious  and  political  institutions  of 
Rome,  its  state  of  civilization,  its  habits  and  customs,  and 
its  literature.  He  appeai-s  to  have  taken  Varro  for  his 
guide.  Unfortunately  his  work,  which  must  have  contained 
a  great  amount  of  useful  and  interesting  information,  is  lost, 
and  we  possess  only  a  few  fragments  of  it. 

2.  L.  Arruntius  wrote  a  history  of  the  Punic  war,  in 
which  he  imitated  the  style  of  Sallust.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  Roman  of  the  ancient  stamp,  and  opposed  to  the  new 
fashioned  oratory  of  his  time.  He  seems  to  have  flourished 
about  B.C.  20. 

3.  Annius  Feticdis  appears  to  have  written  a  work  on 
early  Roman  history.  A  few  other  writers  on  Roman 
aflairs  are  mentioned,  but  we  know  nothing  of  their  produc- 
tions; the  following  two,  however,  are  of  importance: — 

4.  M.  Verrius  FlaCCUS,  a  very  learned  freedman,  who  fol- 
lowed the  examples  of  Fenestella  and  Varro,  and  was  so 
distinguished  as  a  teacher  that  Augustus  not  only  appointed 
him  instructor  of  his  grandsons,  but  received  him  with 
his  whole  school  into  the  palatium.  He  composed  Fastiy 
which  were  engraved  on  a  marble  wall  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  Forum  at  Prjeneste,  where  a  statue  was  erected  to  him. 
He  also  wrote  several  grammatical  works,  but  the  principal 
one  was  a  kind  of  dictionary,  Be  verborum  significatu,  in 
alphabetical  order;  words  with  the  same  initial  letter  filled 
several  books.  This  work  was  a  rich  mine  of  information 
upon  a  variety  of  subjects  connected  with  the  language 
and  antiquities  of  Rome;  but,  unfortunately,  we  possess 
only  a  portion  of  an  abridgment  which  was  made  by  Pom- 


126 


HISTORY  OP  LATIK  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 


peius  Festus,  who  probably  lived  in  the  fourth  century  after 
Christ.  He  divided  his  abridgment  into  twenty  books.  As 
this  epitome  was  the  probable  cause  of  the  loss  of  the  original, 
so  the  work  of  Festus  himself  was  superseded  by  another 
abridgment  made  by  a  priest,  commonly  called  Paulus  Dia- 
conus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  thought 
the  work  of  Festus  too  large,  for  those  times  were  satisfied 
with  very  little  learning ;  but  even  in  this  mutilated 'form 
the  work  contains  most  valuable  information.  Independently 
of  it,  we  have  a  number  of  quotations  from  the  original  work 
of  Verrius  Flaccus  and  from  the  abridgment  of  Festus.* 

Of  the  Fasti  of  Verrius  Flaccus  considerable  fragments 
were  discovered  at  Prseneste  in  1770,  and  are  printed  in  F. 
A.  Wolf's  edition  of  Suetonius,  and  in  Orelli's  Inscriptiones, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  379. 

5.  C.  Julius  Hyginus,  a  freedman  of  Augustus,  who  lived 
from  about  B.C.  64  to  about  a.d.  17.  He  was  a  native  of 
Spain,  but  was  believed  by  some  to  have  been  brought  to  Eome 
as  a  boy  by  Julius  Caesar,  after  the  capture  of  Alexandria. 
At  Rome  he  studied  under  eminent  grammarians,  and  was 
appointed  librarian  of  the  Palatine  library,  established  in 
B.C.  28.  While  holding  this  office  he  also  occupied  himself 
with  teaching,  and  lived  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship  with 
Ovid.  His  knowledge  was  so  extensive  that  he  acquired  the 
name  of  polyhistor.  He  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  a  gi-eat 
many  works,  of  which  only  two  have  come  down  to  our  time, 
viz.: — 

a.  Fahiil^,  a  mythological  school-book,  containing  277 
Fabulae,  which  are  specially  interesting  because  the  author 
has  made  extensive  use  of  the  Greek  tragic  writers ;  but  the 
stories  are  related  veiy  briefly,  and  the  language  is  not  clas- 
sical. Some  of  the  fables  are  lost.  The  collection  is  some- 
times referred  to  under  the  name  of  genealogm,  because  the 
genealogy  of  gods  and  heroes  is  chiefly  dwelt  upon. 

h.  Poeticon  Astronomicon  libri  quatuor^  addressed  to  one 
M.  Fabius,  is  sometimes  called  simply  De  Astroiiomia.  This 
woi-k,  like  that  containing  the  mythical  tales,  is  so  full  of 
mistakes,  and  written  in  such  a  peculiar  and  awkward  style, 

*  The  principal  edition  of  all  that  is  extant  of  Verrius  Flaccus 
timself,  and  his  two  epitomisers,  is  th^t  of  C.  0.  Miiller:  Leipzig,  1839. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


SINNIUS  CAPITO. 


127 


X- 


i. 


y 


that  many  scholars  believe  them  to  be  later  and  much-altered 
editions  of  Hyginus'  original  works;  the  incoiTcctness  in 
style,  however,  may  be  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  author  was 
a*  foreigner.  Some  even  believe  that  these  works  are  not  the 
productions  of  Hyginus  at  all,  but  unskilful  compilations  of 
some  later  grammarian,  who  published  them  under  the  name 
of  the  celebrated  Hyginus.* 

The  other  works  of  Hyginus,  which  are  now  lost,  are  men- 
tioned by  the  ancients  under  the  following  titles:  De  urbibus 
Italicisy  in  at  least  two  books;  De proprietatibus  Deorum;  De 
diis  Penatibus;  De  Virgilio  libri,  in  at  least  five  books;  De 
familiis  Trojanis ;  De  Agricultura,  in  at  least  two  books ; 
Cinnce  Propempticon ;  De  vita  rebusque  illustrium  virorum, 
and  a  few  others. 

111.  A  few  other  gi-ammarians,  such  as  Santra  and  Sin- 
nius  Capito,  wrote  not  only  on  grammatical,  but  also  on 
literary  and  antiquarian  subjects. 

1.  Of  Santra  we  are  told  that  he  wrote  a  work,  De  anti- 
qidtate  verborum,  which  consisted  of  at  least  three  books,  and 
a  tragedy  entitled  Nuntii  Bacchi,  of  which  only  a  few  lines 
are  preserved. 

2.  Sinnius  Capito  wrote  on  grammatical  subjects  in  the 
form  of  epistles,  and  apparently  also  a  work  on  Roman 
archaeology,  in  which  he  treated  on  the  religion,  the  laws, 
and  political  institutions  of  the  Romans. 

Among  the  many  other  less  important  grammarians  of  the 
Augustan  age,  we  may  notice  Clodius  Tuscus,  who  composed 
an  astronomical  calendar,  of  which  we  still  possess  a  Greek 
translation,  made  by  Laurentius  Lydus;  but  otherwise 
nothing  certain  is  known  about  him.  The  calendar  bears 
some  resemblance  to  Ovid's  Fasti,  and  may  have  been  drawn 
up  as  a  sort  of  outline  from  Ovid. 

112.  It  now  remains  to  cast  a  glance  at  the  scientific  and 
other  professional  writers  during  the  Augustan  age,  though 
they  naturally  attach  more  importance  to  the  subject  they 
treat  of  than  to  the  style  and  beauty  of  their  compositions. 
This  class  of  writers  comprises  lawyers,  philosophers,  physi- 

*  The  best  editions  of  both  works  are  those  in  Muncker's  Mytho- 
graphi  Latini:  Amsterdam,  1681 ;  and  in  a  collection  with  the  same 
title  published  at  Ley  den  in  1742, 


i28  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 

cians,  architects,  and  rhetoricians.  The  only  architect  whose 
work  has  come  down  to  us  is  . -^'  = 

Vitruvius  Pollio,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and 
dedicated  to  him  his  work,  De  Architectura.  He  was  pro- 
bably a  native  of  Verona.  He  had  been  employed  by  Julius 
Csesar,  and  had  made  military  engines  for  Augustus,  whose 
sister,  Octavia,  seems  to  have  procured  a  pension  for  him, 
which  enabled  him  to  live  free  from  cares  and  anxieties.  He 
must  have  wi'itten  his  work  on  architecture  about  B.C.  14, 
when  he  was  already  advanced  in  years.  It  consists  of  ten 
books,  each  of  which  has  a  separate  preface,  in  which  he 
addresses  the  emperor  with  great  flattery.  The  drawings 
and  plans  which  were  added  to  the  work  are  now  lost.  It 
is  mainly  based  on  Greek  authorities,  though  Vitruvius 
introduces  many  original  observations  of  his  own.  The 
work  is  often  difficult  to  understand,  partly  because  his 
measurements  do  not  always  agree  with  those  we  find  in 
the  remains  of  ancient  buildings,  and  partly  because  his 
style  of  writing  is  often  loose  and  obscure.  It  is  the  only 
work  on  architecture  that  has  come  down  to  us.* 

113.  Among  the  jurists  we  must  mention — 

1.  C.  jEUus  Gallus,  who  wrote  a  work,  De  significatione 
verhorum,  quce  ad  jus  civile  pertinenty  apparently  in  two 
books;  it  must  have  been  published  before  Verrius  Flaccus 
composed  his  dictionary. 

2.  31.  Antistius  Zabeo,  one  of  the  most  eminent  jurists  of 
his  time.  Augustus  offered  him  the  consulship,  but  he 
declined  it,  preferring  to  spend  six  months  every  year  in  the 
city,  in  study  and  giving  legal  advice,  and  the  remaining  six 
months  in  retirement,  devoting  himself  to  the  composition  of 
legal  works,  which  he  left  in  400  books  {volumina).  But  he 
did  not  confine  himself  to  the  study  of  the  law ;  gi-ammati- 
cal,  etymological,  and  other  literary  subjects,  also  engaged  his 
attention.  He  was  a  man  who  remembered  the  republican 
freedom  in  which  he  was  born ;  and,  far  from  the  sei-vUe 
adulation  paid  to  the  emperor  by  others,  he  sometimes  even 

*  The  best  editions  of  Vitruvius  are  those  of  J.  G.  Schneider: 
Leipzig,  1807,  3  vols.;  and  A.  Marini:  Rome,  1836,  in  4  vols.,  foil. 
A  good  edition  of  the  text,  in  1  vol.,  is  that  of  Rose  &  Muller-StrU- 
bing:  Leipzig,  1867. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


T.   LABIENUS. 


129 


t 


attacked  him.  His  books,  some  of  which  were  published  after 
his  death,  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  among  the  later  jurists. 
3.  G.  Aieiics  Capita  was  born  about  B.C.  34;  became  consul 
in  A.D.  5 ;  and  eight  years  later  he  was  appointed  curator 
aquarum^  which  office  he  held  until  his  death,  a.d.  22.  He  and 
Labeo  were  the  most  eminent  jurists  of  the  time;  but  while 
Labeo  kept  himself  aloof  from,  and  even  defied  court  influence, 
Capito  was  notorious  for  his  servility.  He  was  gi-eat  in 
civil  and  pontifical  jurisprudence,  and  wrote  a  work  called 
Collectanea^  in  ten  books,  each  treating  of  a  distinct  subject, 
as  De  judiciis  puhlicisy  De  officio  senator io,  De  jure  pontificio, 
etc.  His  writings,  not  one  of  which  has  reached  our  time,  are 
less  frequently  referred  to  by  later  jurists  than  those  of  Labeo. 

114.  It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the  study  of  philo- 
sophy, especially  the  Epicurean,  was  looked  upon,  during  the 
A\igustan  age,  as  a  kind  of  fashionable  accomplishment  of 
the  higher  classes,  whose  occupation  with  philosophy  was 
an  amusement  rather  than  a  serious  or  deep  study.  The 
only  persons  of  note  in  this  department  were  Q.  Sextius 
Niger  and  his  son,  both  of  whom,  however,  wrote  in  Greek, 
and  were  followers  of  the  Stoa  and  Pythagoras.  Both  were 
men  of  great  independence  of  spiiit.  They  appear  to  have 
promulgated  their  views  in  the  form  of  Sententioe  or  yvu,fxatf 
some  of  which  are  still  extant. 

115.  During  the  later  period  of  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
little  scope  was  left  for  public  oratory.  The  most  important 
of  the  orators  were — 

1.  T.  Lahienvs,  who  was  not  only  a  great  orator  in  the  style 
of  the  older  Romans,  but  an  historian  who  wrote  with  such 
freedom  and  independence  that  the  senate  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  suppress  his  works  by  ordering  them  to  be  publicly 
burnt.  His  violent  opposition  to  Augustus  and  his  friends 
caused  him  to  be  nicknamed  JRabienus.  The  vexation  at  his 
books  being  burnt  led  him  to  put  an  end  to  his  own  life 
about  A.D.  11.  Caligula  afterwards  allowed  the  books  to  be 
read,  but  they  are  now  lost,  and  we  possess  only  some  parts 
of  speeches  against  Asinius  Pollio  and  the  pantomimic  actor 
Bathyllus.* 

2.  Cassius  Severus  who  was  an  orator  of  great  eminence, 

*  See  Meyer,  Fragm.  Oral,  Hom.f  p.  528,  foil. 


.30 


HISTORY   OP   LATIN    LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  IV. 


md  did  not  scruple  to  attack  men  and  women  of  the  highest 
rank,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  exiled,  and  passed  his 
old  age  on  the  barren  i-ocks  of  the  island  of  Seriphos,  where 
he  died  in  a.d.  32.  He  was  notorious  for  the  savage  and  un- 
bridled manner  in  which  he  indulged  in  assailing  his  enemies. 
A  few  fragments  of  his  violent  declamations  are  still  extant. 

The  number  of  rhetoricians  and  declaimers  was  very  great, 
but  none  of  them,  if  we  except  Papirius  Fabianus  and 
Alfius  Flavus,  can  claim  a  place  in  the  history  of  literature. 
The  only  rhetoricians  of  whom  works  have  come  to  us  are : — 

1.  M.  Annaeus  Seneca,  a  native  of  Corduba  in  Spain, 
who,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  went  to  Rome,  and  there 
listened  to  the  speeches  and  declamations  of  the  most  famous 
orators.  He  afterwards  returned  to  Spain  where  he  married 
Helvia,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  L.  Annaeus  Seneca,  the 
philosopher,  Annaeus  Mela,  the  father  of  the  poet  Lucan, 
and  Annaeus  Noratus.  He  seems  to  have  died  about  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  belonged  to  an  equestrian 
and  wealthy  family,  and  was  a  man  of  the  stern  old  Roman 
type,  of  sober  judgment,  and  an  admirer  of  Cicero.  He  did 
not  shine  among  the  declaimers  of  his  time;  but  in  his  later 
years  he  published  a  book  entitled  Contr  over  sice,  in  ten  books, 
a  collection  of  declamations  made  for  the  instruction  of  his 
sons.  Of  this  work  we  still  possess  books  1,  2,  7,  8,  and  10, 
and  even  these  not  without  gaps.  Another  collection  called 
SuasoricBy  and  consisting  of  seven  speeches,  is  likewise  extant, 
though  it  too  seems  to  be  incomplete  It  was  evidently  com- 
posed after  the  Controversice.  These  works^  which  are  written 
as  much  as  possible  in  the  style  of  Cicero,  are  to  us  a  mine 
of  information  on  the  history  of  rhetoric  in  the  time  of 
Augustus  and  Tiberius.  The  lacunae  of  the  Controversice  are 
partially  made  up  by  an  epitome  or  excerpts  made  from  them 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  which  are 
still  extant.  Besides  these  rhetorical  workff,  Sene'ca  wrote  a 
history  of  Rome  from  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  down 
to  nearly  the  end  of  his  own  life,  but  this  work  is  now 
entirely  lost.* 

*  The  best  critical  edition  of  Seneca's  rhetorical  works  is  that 
of  Bursian :  Leipzig,  1857;  they  are  often  printed  together  with  the 
philosophical  works  of  his  son. 


B.C.  80-A.D.  14.] 


P.    RUTILIUS  LUPUS. 


131 


2.  P.  Rutilius  Lupus,  who  lived  probably  during  the  later 
years  of  Seneca;  he  wrote  a  work  entitled  Schemata  Lexeos, 
in  two  books,  which  was  only  an  abridgement  of  a  larger 
work  of  the  Greek  Gorgias,  consisting  of  four  books.  Lupus' 
work  is  still  extant,  and  is  valuable  because  it  shows  us  the 
uselessness  of  the  minute  multiplication  of  the  figures  of 
speech  which  the  later  rhetoricians  devised.  It  may  be 
noticed  that  the  Gorgias,  whose  work  Lupus  abridged, 
was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Athens,  when  M.  Cicero  was 
studying  there.  It  seems  that  even  this  abridgement  has 
not  come  down  complete,  as  Quintilian  quotes  passages  from 
it  which  do  not  occur  in  it.* 

*  The  best  editions  of  Rutilius  Lupus  are  those  of  D.  Ruhnken: 
Leipzig,  1831;  and  F.  Jacob:  Llibeck,  1837. 


f 


FIFTH    PERIOD.      ^,j]^  ILf- 

The  Impekial  Period  (from  the  death  of  AuGUSTua^o  the  end 

OF  THE  Empire).  'N 

116.  After  the  death  of  Augustus  the  Roman  monarchy 
became  a  real  despotism,  which  gradnally  crushed  in  litera- 
ture  as  well  as  m  poliiicarteeT^  free^nd  independent. 
-SSttsrr: — rjurmg  the  first  half  oi  tne  reign  of  Augustus,  the 
spirit  ot  freedom  still  survived  to  some  extent;  but  during 
the  latter  half  it  died  away,  and  under  his  successor  Tiberius, 
the  system  of  despotism  was  fully  developed,  and  continued 
its  baneful  influence  until  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  under 
whom  better  days  seemed  to  be  dawning;  but  despotism  had 
done  its  work  so  thoroughly  that  all  creative  power  seemed 
to  have  died  out,  and  that  even  the  best  literary  productions 
were  but  poor  imitations  of  the  works  of  the  classical  age. 
Commodus  revived  the  old  despotism,  and  Italian  literature 
sank  deeper  and  deeper.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  somewhat 
more  vigorous  life  in  the  provinces,  the  empire  would  have 
fallen  to  pieces,  even  at  that  early  date.  During  the  last 
period  of  the  empire,  the  only  branches  of  literature  that 
can   be   said   to   have    flourished   were   jurisprudence   and 

scholastic  erudition.  i-  •  i  j   •  x 

The  whole  of  the  imperial  period  may  be  divided  into 
three  epochs,  each  of  which  marks  a  step  downwards  in  the 
history  of  Latin  literature : — 

1.  The  time  of  the  Julian  and  Flavian  emperors,  embrac- 
ing nearly  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

\  The  age  of  the  Antonines,  which  nearly  coincides  with 
the  second  century  after  Christ;  and 

3.  From  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  to  the  fall  of 
the  empire  in  a.  d.  476;  but  it  must  be  observed  that  a  Latin 
literature  of  a  certain  kind  long  survived  the  overthrow  of 
the  empire. 


A.D.  14-600.]      THE  FIRST  CHRISTIAN  CENTURY. 


133 


A.  Latin  Literature  during  the  first  Christian 

Century. 

117.  The  successors  of  Augustus  did  not  hesitate  to  throw 
aside  the  mask  under  which  he  had  contrived  to  hide  his 
despotic  power,  and  boldly  tried  to  crush  all  feeling  of  free- 
dom and  independence.  Servility  and  adulation  of  the  em- 
peror were  the  only  means  of  securing  Hfe  and  property;  and 
there  was  very  little  choice  between  death  or  submission, 
which  the  nobler  spirits,  of  course,  made  most  reluctantly. 
Vespasian  and  Titus  seemed  to  promise  better  days;  but  it 
was  too  late,  and  the  mad  despotism  of  Domitian  threw 
everything  back  again,  and  the  reign  of  Nerva  and  Trajan 
only  sufficed  to  make  men  see  the  depth  of  their  misery.  No 
man  could  venture  with  impunity  to  express  his  real  thoughts 
and  sentiments  on  state  afiairs,  whence  literature  throughout 
this  period  has  something  unreal  and  untrue  about  it.  What 
was  simple  and  natural  was  regarded  as  mean;  everything 
had  to  be  artificial  and  embellished  by  rhetorical  and  poetical 
tinsel.  Mannerism  took  the  place  of  truth,  and  affectation  the 
place  of  natural  strength  and  vigour.  There  were  indeed 
men  who,  like  Quintilian,  were  conscious  of  the  vicious 
tendency  of  literature;  but  they  were  unable  to  check  its 
downward  course,  and  were  themselves  unable  entirely  to 
escape  its  influence.  The  great  mass  of  the  Roman  people 
had,  on  the  whole,  ceased  to  take  an  interest  in  literature, 
and  many  of  the  rulers  fostered  the  estrangement  between 
the  educated  classes  and  the  multitude. 

Nearly  all  writers  look  upon  the  monarchy  as  the  lawfully 
established  form  of  government,  and  only  venture  to  speak 
against  its  abuses;  the  days  of  the  republic  are  scarcely  men- 
tioned without  fear  and  terror,  and  men  are  generally  silent 
on  such  dangerous  topics.  It  is  creditable  to  the  character 
of  the  Romans  that  the  number  of  those  who,  in  these  cir- 
cumstances, stooped  to  flattery  and  servility,  is  comparatively 
small.  A  certain  amount  of  literary  culture  was  widely 
diffused  through  the  numerous  schools  and  teachers;  but,  on 
the  whole,  it  was  very  superficial.  Correctness  in  versifica- 
tion, as  established  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  continued  to  be 
considered  indispensable;  but  the  forms  of  the  language  were 


i 


134  HISTORY   OP  LATIN  LITERATUHE.  [PERIOD  V. 

undergoing  a  process  of  deterioration.  Poetical  forms  were 
often  employed  in  prose  compositions;  new  forma  of  words 
were  arbitrarily  coined,  and  the  classical  tonstruction  of 
sentences  was  neglected  and  altered  in  various  ways.  This 
age  has  not  inappropriately  been  called  the  silver  age  of 
Latin  literature,  as  opposed  to  the  golden  age,  which  began 
with  Cicero  and  ended  about  the  middle  of  the  reign  of 
Augustus. 

118.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  (a.d.  14-37),  rhetorical  de- 
clamation on  given  or  imaginary  subjects  took  the  place  more 
and  more  of  genuine  oratory,  though  we  still  hear  of  a  few 
men  who  distinguished  themselves  as  orators  in  the  senate 
and  in  the  courts  of  law.  Historians  could  treat  with  safety 
only  of  subjects  which  had  no  connection  with  the  actual 
state  of  things,  unless  they  condescended  to  vulgar  flattery. 
Grammarians  and  jurists  alone  could  pursue  their  studies 
without  fear,  while  poetry  seems  to  have  been  all  but  extinct. 

Some  members  of  the  imperial  family,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  Augustus,  tried  their  hands  at  literary  composi- 
tion, e.ff.j 

Tiberius,  who  had  received  an  excellent  education,  is  re- 
ported by  Suetonius  to  have  delivered  several  speeches,  and 
to  have  published  a  brief  account  {commentaiii)  of  his  own 
life.  He  is  further  reported  to  have  written  poetry  both  in 
Latin  and  in  Greek.  His  nephew  and  adopted  son,  Ger- 
manicus,  who  was  likewise  highly  educated,  also  composed 
poetry  in  both  languages ;  but  the  only  production  of  his 
that  has  come  down  to  us  is  a  free  translation  of  the 
0ai>/d/iei/a  of  Aratus  in  hexameter  verae,  which  shows  that 
he  was  not  without  poetical  talent,  and  that  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  subject.*  Of  the  literary  tastes  of  the 
emperors  Claudius  and  JSTero,  we  shall  have  to  speak  here- 
after. Suetonius,  Quintilian,  and  Tacitus  mention  several 
orators  who  distinguished  themselves  by  their  forensic 
speeches;  but  we  possess  no  specimens  of  their  oratory. 

119.  Among  the  historians  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  we  have  to  notice : — 

1.  A.  Cremutius  Cordus.     He  had  written,  under  the 

*  There  is  a  good  edition  of  it  and  its  ancient  commentators  bv  A. 
Breysig:  BerlJh,  1867. 


\ 


A.r.  14-600.]  M.   VELLEItJS   PATERCULUS. 


135 


title  of  Annales,  a  work  on  Koman  history,  and  during  the 
reign  of  Augustus  he  had  not  been  molested  about  it;  but 
under  Tiberius,  in  a.d.  25,  he  was  accused  by  two  clients  of 
Seianus  of  the  offence  of  having  called  Cassius  the  last  of  the 
Romans.  Foreseeing  that  his  doom  was  certain,  he  antici- 
pated the  verdict  by  voluntary  starvation.  The  senate 
ordered  his  work  to  be  publicly  burnt;  but  a  copy  was 
secretly  saved  by  his  daughter  Marcia,  and  afterwards  pub- 
lished again,  the  objectionable  parts  having  been  expunged. 
The  work  is  now  lost. 

2.  Aufidius  Bassus,  bom  about  b.c.  14,  was  the  author  of 
an  historical  work,  the  whole  or  at  least  a  portion  of  which 
was  already  before  the  public  at  the  time  when  the  elder 
Seneca  published  his  Suasorice,  about  a.d.  37.  The  work 
seems  to  have  commenced  with  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
wars.  Whether  the  account  of  the  war  with  the  Germans 
(Lihri  belli  Germanici)  was  a  separate  work,  or  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  history,  we  have  no  means  of  determining.  The 
work  seems  to  have  brought  down  the  history  to  the  year 
A.D.  47;  the  elder  Pliny  contiiiued  it  down  to  his  own  day, 
which  proves  that  the  work  must  have  been  popular  and 
highly  esteemed.  The  few  fragments  preserved  in  Seneca 
show  a  somewhat  artificial  and  affected  style. 

3.  M.  Velleius  Paterculus.  Nothing  is  known  about  his 
life  except  what  can  be  gathered  from  his  own  work,  and 
from  this  we  learn  that,  in  a.d.  1,  he  was  invested  with  the 
tribuneships  of  the  soldiers,  whence  it  follows  that  he  must 
have  been  born  about  B.C.  20.  In  the  capacity  of  tribune, 
he  served  in  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Achaia,  and  Asia;  and  three 
years  later  he  accompanied  Tiberius  as  prsefectus  equitum 
into  Germany,  and  for  eight  years  he  was  almost  constantly 
about  Tiberius  on  his  expeditions  into  Germany,  Pannonia, 
and  Dalmatia.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  a.d.  15,  he  ob- 
tained the  prsetorship,  and  after  its  expiration  he  seems  to 
have  retired  into  private  life,  and  to  have  devoted  himself  to 
study  and  to  the  composition  of  his  work  called  Historice 
Romance  ad  M.  Vinicium  libri  II.,  which  has  come  down  to 
us  in  a  somewhat  mutilated  condition.  The  firet  book,  of  which 
the  beginning  is  lost,  and  which  besides  contains  several  im- 
portant gaps,  gives  a  brief  sketch  of  general  history,  and 


13G  HISTORY  OP  tATlN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

carries  that  of  Rome  down  to  the  destruction  of  Carthage. 
The  second  book,  which  is  more  especially  devoted  to  Roman 
history,  is  complete,  and,  as  he  approaches  his  own  time,  the 
work  becomes  fuller  and  enters  more  into  detail.  The  his- 
tory is  carried  down  to  the  year  a.d.  30,  and  the  whole  has 
evidently  been  composed  hastily  and  carelessly,  though  the 
descriptions  of  character  are  generally  very  interesting  and 
life-like.  ^  When  Velleius  speaks  of  Augustus,  and  especially 
of  Tiberius  and  his  family,  his  praise  is  unmeasured,  and 
approaches  to  servile  adulation.  This,  however,  ought  to  be 
less  offensive  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  he  spent  many  years 
with  Tiberius  who  certainly  was  distinguished  as  a  general, 
and  that  he  wrote  before  the  time  when  Tiberius  became  the 
odious  tyrant.  Velleius,  moreover,  is  always  fond  of  strong 
expressions,  which,  in  speaking  of  his  friend  and  patron,  he 
could  hardly  be  expected  to  modify. 

Velleius  Paterculus  is  not  mentioned  by  any  ancient 
writer,  except  the  grammarian  Priscian  and  the  scholiast  on 
Lucan;  and  no  manuscript  of  his  work  was  known  before 
1515,  when  Beatus  Rhenanus  found  one  in  the  abbey  of 
Murbach  in  Alsace.* 

4.  Valerius  Maximus  was  a  contemporary  of  Velleius 
Paterculus,  whom  he  even  surpasses  in  flattery  towards 
Tiberius,  though  he  is  much  inferior  to  him  in  talent.  He 
seems  to  have  belonged  to  the  patrician  Valeria  gens;  but 
was  not  possessed  of  any  great  fortune.  In  a.d.  14  he  served 
under  Sex.  Pompeius  in  Asia;  afterwards  he  appears  to  have 
lived  at  Rome,  and  during  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of 
Tiberius  he  wrote  a  collection  of  anecdotes,  still  extant,  and 
bearing  the  title  Factorum  Lictorumque  Memomhilium  lih'i 
/X,  dedicated  to  Tiberius.  To  these  is  generally  added  a 
treatise  De  Nominibusy  which  some  have  regarded  as  a  tenth 
book,  but  which  certainly  is  not  the  production  of  Valerius 
Maximus.  The  conclusion  of  the  ninth  book  seems  to  be 
wanting.  This  collection  of  anecdotes,  no  doubt  intended 
for  the  use  of  orators  and  rhetorical  schools,  shows  that 
the  author  did  not  possess  any  accurate  knowledge  of  his- 
tory.     He  is,  further,  very  superstitious,   and  wanting  in 

*  A  good  edition  of  Velleius  Paterculus  is  that  of  Fr.  Kritz: 
Leipzig,  1840. 


A.1).  14-600.] 


A.    CORNELIUS   CELSUS. 


137 


taste  and  critical  power;  but  notwithstanding  this,  the 
work  contains  information  on  some  matters  which  is  not  to 
be  obtained  elsewhere.  Each  chapter  is  divided. into  two 
parts,  the  first  containing  anecdotes  gathered  from  Roman 
history,  and  the  second  anecdotes  from  the  history  of  other 
countries.  Tiberius  and  the  members  of  his  family  are 
always  spoken  of  with  the  most  abject  flattery,  and  without 
the  excuse  which  may  be  urged  in  the  case  of  Velleius 
Paterculus.  The  style  and  language  are  throughout  arti- 
ficial and  tasteless,  and  nothing  is  simple  or  natural.* 

120.  One  of  the  most  distinguished  writers  on  a  variety 
of  subjects  is 

A.  Cornelius  Celsus.  He  is  now  known  to  us  chiefly 
through  his  work  on  medicine;  but  it  is  well  attested  that  he 
also  wrote  on  rhetoric,  law,  philosophy,  and  agriculture.  His 
great  work,  in  which  he  treated  of  all  these  subjects,  appears 
to  have  been  a  kind  of  encyclopaedia,  in  twenty  books,  in 
which  some  subjects  were  treated  more  fully  than  others. 
The  title  of  the  whole  was  Artes  or  De  Artibus.  The  first 
five  books  treated  of  agriculture  {De  Re  Bustica)  and 
veterinary  surgery;  the  eight  following  of  medicine  (De 
Medicina),  and  this  is  the  only  part  of  the  work  that  has 
come  down  to  our  time,  and  is  in  fact  the  only  work  on 
medicine  we  have  belonging  to  the  better  age  of  Latin  litera- 
ture. It  is  written  in  a  simple  and  natural  style  worthy  of 
the  age  of  Cicero,  and  is  mainly  based  on  the  works  of 
Hippocrates  and  Asclepiades.  The  first  four  books  treat  of 
internal  diseases;  the  fifth  and  sixth  of  external  diseases;  and 
the  last  two,  which  treat  of  surgery,  are  considered  the  most 
valuable  part  of  the  whole  work.  The  remaining  books  must 
have  treated  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  Quintilian  does  not 
speak  very  favourably  of  the  rhetorical  part;  but  this  may 
have  arisen  to  some  extent  from  a  kind  of  professional 
jealousy.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
Celsus  published  a  treatise  on  military  tactics,  which,  like 
most  of  his  other  works,  is  now  lost.f 

*  A  good  critical  edition  of  Valerius  Maximus  is  that  of  C.  Kempf : 
Berlin,  1854.  ^ 

t  The  best  edition  of  the  text  of  Celsus'  work  on  medicine  is  that 
of  C.  Daremberg:  Leipzig,  1859. 


138 


HISTOHY  01*  LATIN  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  V. 


121.  The  only  poet  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius  is 
Phaedrus,  a  freedman,  and  a  native  of  Macedonia,  who 

published  five  books  of  ^sopian  fables  in  neat  iambic  senai-ii. 
Among  the  fables  there  are  also  interspersed  some  anecdotes 
of  occurrences  in  Phsednis'  own  time,  or  the  age  preceding 
it.  He  must  have  been  brought  to  Rome  in  eai-ly  youth. 
In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  he  sufiered  pei*secution  through 
Seianus,  whom  he  had  offended  by  some  allusion  in  his 
fables.  How  he  was  made  to  sufier  we  do  not  know;  but 
certain  it  is  that  Phiedrus  survived  the  downfall  of  his 
persecutor.  * 

122.  The  most  distinguished  jurists  under  Tiberius  were 
MasuHus  SabinuSj  whose  principal  work  consisted  of  three 
books  on  the  civil  law;  M.  Cocceius  Nerva  (grandfather  of  the 
emperor  Nerva),  Froctilus  and  G.  Cassius  Longinus.  Among 
grammarians  we  may  mention  Julius  Modestus,  a  freedman 
and  pupil  of  Hyginus,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  Horace; 
M.  Pomponius  MarceUus;  Q.  Eennnius  Palceinon  of  Vicenza, 
who  composed  a  Latin  grammar  which  seems  to  have  been 
much  used  at  Rome,  and  is  frequently  quoted  by  later  gram- 
marians; and  Gavius  Bassus,  who  wrote  a  work  De  Origine 
Verborum  et  Vocahuloi^iriy  in  at  least  seven  books.  Antonius 
Castor  wrote  a  work  on  botany,  which  seems  to  have  been 
looked  upon  as  an  authority  in  its  day.  The  celebrated 
gourmet  Apicius  wrote  a  book  on  cookery,  and  there  still 
exists  a  work  on  this  subject  in  ten  books  which  ])ears  his 
name,  but  is  no  doubt  the  production  of  a  writer  of  the  third 
century  of  our  era,  though  parts  of  it  may  have  been  taken 
from  the  work  of  the  real  Apicius  which  is  now  lost. 

123.  Some  of  the  membei-s  of  the  Julian  imperial  family 
cannot  be  passed  over  in  a  history  of  Latin  literature. 
Augustus  and  Tiberius  have  already  been  mentioned  as 
authors,  but  the  Emperor  Claudius  and  Nero,  and  his  mother, 
Agrippina,  also  have  some  claims  to  our  attention. 

1.  Claudius  J  who  was  boni  in  B.C.  10  and  reigned  from 
A.D.  41  to  A.D.  54,  was  a  very  industrious  and  voluminous 
writer,  both  before  and  after  his  accession,  especially  on  his- 
torical subjects.     In  these  pursuits  he  was  encouraged  by 

*  Editions  of  Phaedrus  to  be  recommended  are  those  of  J.  C.  Orelli: 
Zurich,  1831;  and  F.  E.  Raschig:  Berlin,  1861. 


A.l>.  14-600.] 


KERO. 


139 


Livy  and  assisted  by  Sulpicius  Flavins.  Claudius  wrote  a 
.  history  of  his  own  time,  beginning  with  the  murder  of  Ctesar, 
in  forty-three  books;  a  history  of  his  own  life,  and  a  defence 
of  Cicero  against  Asinius  Gallus.  In  Greek  he  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  Etruria,  in  twenty  books,  and  a  history  of  Carthage, 
in  eight  books.  All  these  works,  which  are  now  lost,  may 
not  have  been  of  great  literary  value  :  for  we  know  that  he 
was  a  man  of  an  extremely  weak  character  and  of  no  great 
intellect;  but  still,  if  we  possessed  them,  they  would  un- 
doubtedly throw  light  upon  subjects  of  which  we  now  know 
little  or  nothing.  All  we  now  possess  of  Claudius  is  a  por- 
tion of  a  speech  which,  in  a.d.  48,  he  delivered  in  the  senate, 
recommending  the  admission  of  the  Gallic  nobility  to  the 
high  offices  of  the  empire.  This  remarkable  document  was 
discovered  at  Lyons  in  1524,  engraved  on  two  bronze  tables. 
The  substance  of  it  is  quoted  by  Tacitus  in  his  annals,  and 
the  document,  so  far  as  it  is  preserved,  is  generally  printed 
as  an  appendix  to  the  works  of  Tacitus. 

Claudius  also  occupied  himself  with  grammatical  studies, 
and  invented  three  new  letters,  viz.,  j,  to  mark  v  when  used 
as  a  consonant;  0>  as  a  substitute  for  bs  and  ^js;  and  I,  to 
mark  the  sound  intermediate  between  i  and  ?/.  But  as  this 
inci-ease  of  the  alphabet  was  found  neither  very  necessary 
nor  useful,  it  soon  fell  into  disuse. 

2.  Agrippina,  the  mother  of  the  Emperor  Nero,  wrote 
Commentarii,  in  which  she  described  her  own  life  and  the 
misfortunes  of  her  relatives.  They  were  probably  published 
before  the  accession  of  her  son.  Her  own  life  belongs  to  the 
period  from  a.d.  16  to  a.d.  59. 

3.  Nero,  when  ascending  the  throne,  a.d.  54,  was  a  young 
man  of  considerable  talent  and  promise.  His  mother,  and 
his  tutor  Seneca,  prevented  his  turning  his  attention  to 
philosophy  and  oratory,  in  consequence  of  which  he  gave 
himself  up  with  much  enthusiasm  to  the  cultivation  of  poetry. 
He  recited  his  poetical  productions  not  only  to  his  friends 
and  admirers  at  the  court,  but  in  the  public  theatre,  Avhere, 
of  course,  they  were  so  enthusiastically  admired  that,  by  a 
decree  of  the  senate,  some  of  them  were  ordered  to  be  en- 
graved in  letters  of  gold,  and  to  be  exhibited  in  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.     He  also  composed  an  epic  poem 


140  HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  V. 

on  the  story  of  Troy,  a  few  lines  of  which  have  come  down 
to  us.  Other  poems  were  written  to  be  recited  with  the 
accompaniment  of  the  lyre,  and  some  of  them  are  said  to 
have  been  very  lascivious. 

124.  The  most  eminent  among  the  writers  of  the  Julian 
period  was 

L.  Annaeus  Seneca,  the  son  of  the  rhetorician,  M.  Annseus 
Seneca,  who  was  born  about  B.c.  4,  and  died  a.d.  65,  so  that  the 
period  of  his  literary  activity  belongs  to  the  reigns  of  Tiberius, 
Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero.  He  must  have  accompanied 
his  father  from  Corduba  to  Rome  at  an  early  period.  He 
devoted  himself  from  the  first  chiefly  to  the  study  of  oratory 
and  philosophy.  Afterwards  he  took  part  in  public  life,  and 
in  the  reign  of  Caligula  he  became  a  member  of  the  senate. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Claudius,  a.d.  41,  when 
Julia  Livilla,  the  sister  of  Caligula,  was  banished,  at  the 
instigation  of  Messalina,  to  the  island  of  Coi-sica,  Seneca,  her 
paramour,  had  to  share  her  fate.  He  remained  in  Corsica 
eight  years,  and,  in  a.d.  49,  was  recalled  by  the  desire  of 
Agrippina,  and  intrusted  with  the  education  of  her  son  Nero. 
At  the  same  time  he  was  raised  to  the  prsetorship.  Under 
Nero,  Seneca  for  a  time  was  the  virtual  ruler  of  the  empire, 
and  obtained  the  consulship  in  a.d.  57.  But  in  a.d.  65  he 
was  accused  of  participation  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  condemned  to  death ;  but  as 
the  mode  of  the  execution  was  left  to  his  choice,  he  had  his 
veins  opened,  and  bled  to  death  in  his  bath  with  a  truly 
philosophic  calmness  and  resignation. 

Seneca  is  the  brightest  literary  phenomenon  of  the  first 
Christian  century,  and  at  the  same  time  its  most  character- 
istic representative.  He  had  the  same  facility  in  composition 
as  Ovid,  and  a  very  lively  feeling  of  his  own  merits.  Although 
he  did  not  often  make  a  bad  use  of  his  powers,  still  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  he  did  not  always  resist  the  temptations  which 
were  put  in  his  way.  He  was  sometimes  guilty  of  inordinate 
ambition  and  vanity,  of  flattery  and  sei-vility,  faults  which 
form  a  strong  contrast  to  the  teachings  contained  in  his 
writings.  Some  excuse,  however,  must  be  made,  if  we 
remember  the  times  and  circumstances  in  which  he  lived; 
and  the  calm   composure  with  which   he  met  his  death 


A.D.  14-600.] 


L.   ANN^US  SENECA. 


141 


., 


shows  at  all  events  he  could  act  up  to  his  philosophical 

principles. 

As  an  author,  Seneca  valued  brilliancy  higher  than 
thoroughness.  He  wrote  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  both 
in  prose  and  in  verse,  and  always  with  a  marked  tendency 
to  contemplation  and  to  reflection  on  nature  and  the  life  of 
man,  an  inclination  to  which,  in  his  later  years,  he  yielded 
entirely.  The  basis  of  his  philosophy  is  the  system  of  the 
Stoics,  but  greatly  modified  by  additions  from  other  systems, 
by  softening  down  its  harshness,  by  avoiding  its  quibblings, 
and  by  relaxing  the  sternness  of  its  ethical  principles.  His 
philosophy  is  therefore  more  of  a  popular  character,  and  cal- 
culated to  charm  the  reader  by  the  extent  and  nicety  of  his 
observations,  by  the  wide  range  of  his  knowledge,  by  the 
easy  and  sparkling  style,  and  by  the  noble  spirit  which  per- 
vades his  writings;  but  it  is  nevertheless  somewhat  wearisome 
to  observe  a  certain  rhetorical  sameness,  and  the  obvious  striv- 
ing to  please  his  readers  which  appears  in  all  his  productions. 

The  first  place  among  his  prose  works  is  generally  assigned 
to  his  treatise — 

1.  De  /m,  on  self-control,  in  three  books,  dedicated  to  his 
brother,  Novatus,  which  was  evidently  composed  after  the 
death  of  Caligula. 

2.  An  epistle,  De  Consolatione  ad  Ilehiam  niatrem,  which 
was  written  in  Corsica  during  his  exile,  to  comfort  his  mother 
about  his  banishment ;  with  an  intimation  to  exert  herself  to 
effect  his  recall. 

3.  De  CoTisolatione  ad  Polyhium  was  likewise  written  in 
Corsica,  to  Polybius,  an  influential  freedman  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  to  console  him  for  the  loss  of  a  brother. 

4.  De  Coyisolatione  ad  Marciam,  an  epistle  addressed  to 
IVtarcia,  the  daughter  of  Cremutius  Cordus,  to  comfort  her 
for  the  loss  of  a  son  who  had  died  three  years  before.  This 
epistle  was  written  after  his  return  from  exile. 

5.  Quare  bonis  viris  mala  accidant,  cum  sit  providentia,  is  a 
work  addressed  to  his  friend  Lucilius,  procurator  of  Sicily, 
in  which  Seneca  answers  the  question  in  the  spirit  of  the 
Stoics ;  and,  as  a  last  resource,  recommends  suicide  as  an 
escape  from  evils.  This  work  seems  to  have  been  written 
after  Seneca's  exile. 


142  HISTORY   OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

6.  De  Animi  Tranquillitate  ad  Severum,  to  which 

7.  De  Constantia  Sapientis  is  a  kind  of  sequel. 

8.  De  dementia,  addressed  to  Nero  in  the  second  year  of 
his  reign.  Of  this  treatise  only  the  first  book  and  the 
beginning  of  the  second  are  extant. 

9.  De  Brevitate  Vitce,  addressed  to  Paulinus. 

10.  DeVita  Beata,  addressed  to  Gallio,  is  perhaps  the  best 
ot  feenecas  philosophical  treatises,  and  was  written  in  his 
later  years,  partly  with  a  view  of  defending  his  own  life 
and  actions.     The  last  portion  of  the  work  is  lost. 

U.  De  Otio  et  Secessu  Sapientis,  of  which  the  bednnin<>  is 
wanting.  ®         ® 

T-u^'  1^^  ^ewe/?cm,  in  seven  books,  addressed  to  ^biicius 
L.iberahs,  is  a  production  of  the  later  years  of  Seneca's  life. 

1 3.  Epistolce  ad  Lucilium  is  a  collection  of  1 24  letters  which 
are  sometimes  arranged  in  twenty  and  sometimes  twentv- 
two  books.  This  collection  gives  us  the  most  complete 
picture  of  the  peculiar  character  of  Seneca,  and  is  iustly 
regarded  as  one  of  his  best  works.  The  letters  were  written 
during  the  last  six  or  seven  yeara  of  his  life. 

14.  Ludus  de  morte  Ccesans  is  a  bitter  and  unworthy 
satire  on  the  deceased  Emperor  Claudius ;  but  remarkable  as 
a  specimen  of  the  Menippean  satire. 

15  Qucestiojium  Naturalium  libri  VII.,  addressed  to  his 
friend  Lucilius,  was  written  during  the  last  three  years  of 
beneca  s  life,  and  treats  of  a  variety  of  natural  phenomena, 
such  as  fire,  thunder,  lightning,  water,  hail,  snow,  ice,  winds 
earthquakes  comets,  etc.  The  author,  on  the  whole,  adopts 
the  views  of  the  Stoics ;  but  also  makes  use  of  Aristotle  and 
Iheophrastus.  The  work  is  written  in  plain  and  simple 
language,  and  was  very  popular  throughout  the  middle  a^es 
as  the  standard  book  on  physics. 

Several  other  prose  works  of  Seneca  are  lost,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  fragments,  as,  for  example,  De  terrce  motu, 
De  superstitione,  De  qfficiis,  MoraUum  libri,  Exlwrtaticmum 
hbri,  Deimmatura  morte,  De  India,  De  ritu  et  sacris  ^ayp- 
tiorum,  De  matHmonio,  and  De  remediis  fortuitorum.    Owbff 

v^^^!^^  popularity  of  his  works,  several  treatises  were 
pub  ished  during  the  middle  ages  under  Seneca's  name.  A 
work  entitled  ^enec(B  ProverUa  consists  for  the  most  part 


A.D.  14- GOO.] 


Q.    CURTIUS   RUFUS. 


14, 


only  of  extracts  made  at  a  late  period  from  his  known  works. 
There  also  exists  a  collection  of  six  letters,  purporting  to 
belong  to  a  correspondence  between  Seneca  and  the  Apostle 
Paul,  which  seem  to  have  been  popular  as  early  as  the  fourth 
century;  but  they  are  evidently  a  forgery.  Quintilian  speaks 
of  orations  of  Seneca,  and  it  is  well  known  that  some  of  the 
speeches  delivered  by  Nero  were  composed  by  Seneca,  but  no 
specimens  are  now  extant. 

In  verse  we  possess  several  epigrams  refening  to  Seneca's 
exile,  but  the  authorship  of  some  of  them  is  very  doubtful. 
His  most  important  poetical  productions  are  eight  tragedies, 
viz.,  Hercules  Furens,  Thijestes,  Phcedra,  (Edipits,  Troades  (or 
Hecuba),  Medea,  Agamemnon,  Hercules  (Etceus,  and  two 
scenes  from  a  Thebais. 

It  was  doubted  at  one  time  whether  these  dramas  were 
the  works  of  the  philosopher  Seneca,  and  whether  they  ought 
not  to  be  ascribed  to  the  rhetorician,  his  father;  but  recent 
criticism  has  shown  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  tragedies, 
either  in  regard  to  style  or  thought,  that  is  incompatible 
with  what  we  know  of  the  philosopher.  We  find  in  them 
the  same  verboseness,  the  same  rhetorical  figures,  sentences, 
and  sayings,  as  in  his  prose  works,  except  that  in  the  tra- 
gedies, and  in  accordance  with  their  very  nature,  everything  is 
more  exaggerated.  Their  language  is  often  mere  verbiage,  in 
which  it  is  difficult  to  discover  any  thought.  The  versifica- 
tion is  correct,  though  somewhat  monotonous.  There  is  a 
drama  entitled  Octavia,  the  subject  of  which  belongs  to  recent 
history,  and  which  beara  the  name  of  Seneca ;  but  it  is  now 
generally  believed  to  be  the  production  of  a  much  later  age.* 

125.  Q.  Curtius  Rufus,  the  author  of  a  history  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great.  According  to  the  evidence  furnished  by  his 
own  work,  he  must  have  lived  and  written  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius.  We  have  no  information  about  his  life  and 
circumstances,  whence  a  wide  field  of  speculation  is  left  open 
as  to  the  time  when  his  work  was  composed;  and  while  some 
have  maintained  that  it  was  written  in  the  reign  of  Augustus, 

*  A  good  edition  of  the  prose  works  of  Seneca  is  that  of  C.  R. 
Fickert:  Leipzig,  1842-1845,  in  3  vols.  A  good  text  of  the  poetical 
works  was  edited  by  R.  Peiper  and  G.  JRichter:  Leipzig,  1867,  in 
Teubner's  collection. 


lU 


HISTORY  OP   LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


others  have  believed  the  author  to  have  been  a  contemporary 
of  Vespasian,  or  even  of  Septimus  Severus ;  but  a  careful 
consideration  of  several  passages  of  the  work  leaves  no  doubt 
that  it  was  written  soon  after  the  murder  of  Caligula.  The 
author  himself  informs  us  that  in  writing  his  work  he  made 
use  of  the  histories  of  Alexander  by  Clitarchus,  Timagenes, 
and  Ptolemseus ;  but  he  does  not  pretend  critically  to  have 
sifted  his  authorities.  On  the  contrary,  he  frankly  states 
that  he  simply  transcribed  what  he  found  recorded,  even 
where  he  could  not  believe  the  statements  he  read.  His 
work,  bearing  the  title  of  Ilistoria  Alexarulri  Magni,  ori- 
ginally consisted  of  ten  books,  but  the  firet  two  are  lost.  Its 
style  and  language  have  still  the  classical  charaoterj^jid  ^e 
formed  on  the  model  of  Livy ;  but  the  work  is  nevei-theless 
thoroughly  rhetorical,  and  more  like  a  romance  than  a  his- 
tory. It  is  full  of  speeches  and  descriptions,  and  the  descrip- 
tions he  gives  of  battles  show  that  the  author  was  but  little 
acquainted  with  military  affairs.* 

126.  L.  Junius  Moderatus  Columella,  a  contemporary  and 
countryman  of  the  philosopher  Seneca,  was  born  at  Gades,  in 
Spain.  Beyond  this  fact,  which  is  mentioned  by  himself,  we 
know  nothing  of  his  life,  except  that  for  a  time  he  served  in 
the  ai-my  in  Syria,  and  that  he  possessed  several  estates  in 
Italy.  His  work  on  agriculture  {De  Re  jRustica),  in  twelve 
books,  must  have  been  written  before  the  death  of  Seneca, 
probably  in  A.D.  62,  and  is  dedicated  to  P.  Silvinus.  He 
seems  first  to  have  wiitten  a  smaller  work  on  the  same  sub- 
ject, of  which  the  part  jDe  arboribus  is  still  extant,  and  helps 
to  explain  the  fifth  book  of  I)e  Re  Rustica,  which  has  come 
down  to  us  in  a  very  mutilated  form.  Columella  entertained 
the  highest  idea  of  the  importance  of  agi-iculture,  and  laments 
the  neglect  of  it  in  his  time.  He  himself  liestowed  the 
greatest  attention  upon  it,  and  tried  to  treat  of  it  in  a  manner 
worthy  of  its  importance.  The  tenth  book,  on  horticulture, 
is  written  in  excellent  hexameters,  in  imitation  of  the  Geo7'- 
gica  of  Vergil,  whom  he  venerated  and  admired,  but  whom 
he  was  unable  to  equal  as  a  poet.     Otherwise  his  work  is 

*  The  best  modern  editions  of  Curtius  are  those  of  J.  Mutzell: 
Berlin,  1842,  in  2  vols.,  with  a  critical  and  exegetical  commentary; 
and  of  C.  G.  Zumpt :  Brunswick,  1849. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


rOMPONIUS   MELA. 


145 


written  in  simple,  pure,  and  flowing  language,  and  treats  of 
everything  connected  with  agi'iculture,  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine,  arboriculture,  domestic  animals,  etc.  It  contains  much 
valuable  information,  derived  from  sources  that  are  now  lost.* 

127.  Q.  Asconius  Pedianus,  a  very  distinguished  commen- 
tator of  Cicero,  who  flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Claudius 
and  Nero.  He  seems  to  have  been  born  about  a.d.  1,  and 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Patavium.  In  his  seventy-third 
year  he  lost  his  eyesight;  but  lived  twelve  years  longer, 
honoured  and  esteemed  by  all.  Suetonius  calls  him  scrip- 
tor  histoncus^  because  his  writings  were  all  more  or  less 
of  an  historical  character,  for  he  wrote  a  life  of  Sallust,  and 
apparently  also  one  of  Persius;  he  further  published  a 
treatise  against  the  detractors  of  Vergil.  These  writings  are 
unfortunately  lost,  but  we  still  possess  a  portion  of  his  valu- 
able historical  commentaries  on  Cicero's  orations.  The  author 
no  doubt  wrote  commentaries  on  all  the  speeches,  but  we 
now  possess  only  those  on  the  orations  against  Piso,  for 
Scaurus,  for  Milo,  for  C.  Cornelius,  and  the  speech  in  toga 
Candida;  even  these,  however,  have  come  down  to  us  in  a 
very  mutilated  condition.  They  are  written  in  good  classi- 
cal Latin,  and  are  of  great  historical  value.  They  are  printed 
in  the  fifth  volume  of  Orelli's  edition  of  Cicero's  works. 

There  exists,  under  the  name  of  Asconius  Pedianus,  a 
commentary  on  Cicero's  speeches  against  Verres;  but  the 
language  is  unclassical,  the  historical  explanations  are  of  a 
trivial  kind,  and  the  other  explanations  are  mostly  grammati- 
cal. In  short  this  commentary  contains  little  or  nothing 
that  could  remind  us  of  Asconius  Pedianus,  and  seems  to  be 
the  production  of  some  grammarian  of  the  fourth  century  of 
our  era. 

128.  Pomponius  Mela,  a  contemporary  of  Asconius  Pedi- 
anus and  a  native  of  Tingentera  in  Spain,  wrote,  either  under 
Caligula  or  under  Claudius,  a  description  of  the  ancient  world 
in  three  books.  This  is  the  first  work  of  the  kind  we  meet 
with  in  Latin  litem fcure;  it  bears  the  title  De  Situ  orbis,  and 
forms  a  concise  manual  of  geography,  which  is  preserved 
entire.     The  author  follows  the  course  of  the  coast-line,  be- 

*  It  is  printed  in  the  collections  of  the  Scriptores  Rei  Rusticce,  by 
J.  M.  Gesner  and  F.  G.  Schneider. 


liQ 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


A.D.  14-600]. 


M.  VALERIUS  PROBUS. 


#li 


I  ginning  with  Africa,  proceeding  to  Egypt,  Arabia,  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  etc. ,  till  he  comes  back  to  the  point  from  which  he 
has  stai"ted.  Mela  compiled  his  work  from  the  best  authorities 
accessible  to  him;  but  exercised  his  own  judgment,  and  omitted 
what  appeared  to  him  fabulous  or  mythical.  He  further  does 
not  confine  himself  to  mere  geographical  details,  but  enlivens 
his  statements  by  descriptions  of  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  various  countries.  His  style  is  somewhat  rhetorical, 
reminding  us  of  that  of  Seneca.  It  is  surprising  that  the 
Romans,  with  all  their  foreign  conquests,  had  till  then 
not  produced  any  work  on  geography,  and,  even  if  we 
take  later  works  into  account,  Mela  is  their  best  and  ablest 
geographer.* 

129.  Among  the  orators  of  this  period,  some  of  whom  acted 
the  base  part  of  informers,  there  is  none  of  whom  literary 
remains  are  now  extant,  and  very  few  composed  any  work 
deserving  special  mention  here.  Among  tliejuiists  who  also 
wrote  on  legal  subjects  we  may  mention  Cocceius  Nervaj  the 
father  of  the  Emperor  Nerva,  who  wi'ote  De  Usucapionibtts, 
and  jSex.  Fedius,  who  wrote  a  work  in  several  books,  De 
Stipulationibu^,  and  a  larger  work  in  at  least  twenty-five 
books,  entitled  Ad  Edictum. 

The  philosophers  of  this  period,  so  far  as,  like  Seneca,  they 
wrote  in  Latin,  genei-ally  adopted  the  system  of  the  Stoics, 
for  the  best  men  of  the  time  were  convinced  that  the  Stoic 
philosophy  alone  could  teach  men  how  to  live  honourably 
and  to  die  courageously.  Among  men  of  this  class  we  may 
mention  Thrasea  Psetus,  Helvidius  Priscus,  and  the  poets 
Persius  and  Lucan.  These  and  many  others,  disdaining  to 
flatter  or  humble  themselves  before  their  despotic  rulers, 
often  had  to  pay  with  their  lives  for  their  love  of  freedom. 
Things  went  so  far  that  a  man  professing  to  be  a  Stoic  was 
for  this  very  reason  sus2)ected  of  harbouring  republican  ideas, 
and  brought  upon  himself  banishment  or  death ;  but  Stoicism 
among  the  Romans,  at  this  as  well  as  at  other  times,  was 
i-arely  maintained  in  its  purity  :  for  while  one  class  of  men, 
like  Seneca,  softened  do^vn  its  sternness  and  harshness,  and 

*  The  best  editions  of  Pomponius  Mela  are  those  of  T.  H. 
Tzschucke:  Leipzig,  1806,  in  6  vols.,  -with  a  large  critical  and  ex^- 
getical  commentary;  and  of  G.  Parthey:  Berlin,  ISGjf. 


147 


thereby  reduced  it  to  a  kind  of  practical  wisdom,  others  mixed 
up  mth  it  additions  of  Pythagorean  asceticism  and  cynical 
practices.  Most  of  the  philosophers  confined  themselves  to 
lecturmg  and  teaching ;  but  Thrasea  Foetus  m-ote  a  life  of 
the  younger  Cato,  of  whom  he  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer 
The  work  itself  is  lost,  but  Plutarch's  life  of  Cato  probably 
contains  the  substance  of  it. 

130.  The  most  erudite  among  the  grammarians  of  this  time 
was  M.  Valerius  Probus,  of  Berytus,  whose  life  seems  to 
have  extended  into  the  reign  of  Domitian.     He  lectured  on 
the  language  of  the  earlier  Roman  poets,  especially  Vergil 
tor  whom  he  did  what  the  Alexandrian  poets  had  done  for 
Homer  his  mam  object  being  to  establish  a  correct  text. 
We  still  possess  under  his  name  ancient  scholia  on  Vergil's 
Bucohca  and  Georgica,  the  best  parts  of  which  may  indeed  have 
been  taken  from  works  of  Probus,  but  much  useless  matter  is 
mixed  up  with  them.     He  also  published  revised  texts,  with 
commentaries,  of  Horace,  Lucretius,  and  Terence.     Indepen- 
dently of  such  critical  editions  of  earlier  poets,  he  wrote  a 
number  of  gi-ammatical  treatises,  most  of  which  are  now  lost  • 
but  there  still  exist   under  his  name— 1.  A  work  called 
Latholica,  which  treats  of  nouns  and  verbs,  and  is  printed  in 
Keil  s  collection  of  Latin  grammarians ;  2.  A  work  entitled 
Ars,  or  Instituta  artium,  i.e.,  a  Latin  grammar,  which  in  the 
coui^e  of  time  seems  to  have  undergone  great  alterations  at 
the  hands  of  later  editors  or  copyists,  which  are  not  always 
improvements.     This  also  is  printed  in  KeU's  collection. 

1^.  There  is  an  anonymous  epic  poem  in  praise  of  a  con- 
sul Piso ;  but  we  neither  know  who  the  poet  nor  who  the 
consul  Piso  was,  though  the  style  of  the  poem  clearly  points 
to  the  time  of  Claudius  or  Nero.  The  author  of  the  poem 
describes  himself  as  a  youth  who  was  prompted  to  sing  the 
praises  of  Piso,  not  for  gain,  but  only  for  glory.  The  author 
was  evidently  well  acquainted  with  the  poetry  of  the  Augus- 
tan age,  and  possessed  considerable  skill  and  facility  in  com- 
posing his  somewhat  rhetorical  poem.* 

132.  A.  Persius  Flaccus  was  born  at  Volaterrse,  in  Etru- 
ria,  on  the  4th  of  December,  a.d.  34,  and  belonged  to  a 
wealthy  equestrian  family.     He  lost  his  father  at  the  age  of 
*  It  is  printed  in  Wemsdorf's  Foetce  Latini  minores,  Vol.  IV. 


148 


•HISTORY  OF  LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


^1 


six ;  and  six  years  later  his  mother,  with  him  and  his  sister, 
removed  to  Rome,  where  Persius  received  instruction  in 
grammar  from  Remmins  Palsemon,  and  in  rhetoric  from  Vir- 
ginius  Flavus;  but  the  Stoic   Cornutus  made  the  deepest 
impression  upon  the  youth,  and  from  the  age  of  sixteen  to 
the  end  of  his  life  Persius  was  attached  to  him  as  to  a  father. 
His  poetical  and  philosophical  pursuits,  as  well  as  his  family 
connections,  brought  him  into  contact  with  Lucan,  Claudius 
Agathemerus,  Thrasea  Psetus,  Servius  Nonianus,  and  other 
eminent  men;  but  before  he  had  completed  his  twenty-eighth 
year  he  died  of  some  disease  of  the  stomach,  on  the  24th  of 
November,  a.d.  G2.     He  left  a  considerable  fortune  and  a 
large  library,  which  he  bequeathed  to  Cornutus,  who  under- 
took to  look  after  Persius'  literary  remains.     Persius  is  de- 
scribed as  very  handsome,  of  most  gentle  manners,  of  almost 
maidenly  modesty,  and  of  great  affection  towards  his  mother 
and  sister.     His  literary  remains  consisted  of  a  prcetextttf  en- 
titled Vescio  or  ResciOy  written  in  his  boyhood;  a  book  of 
travel,   some  verses  on  the  elder  Arria;   and   six   satires, 
which  last  are  the  only  productions  of  Persius  that  have 
come  down  to  us,  as,  at  the  request  of  Cornutus,  his  mother 
destroyed  all  the  rest.    This  collection  of  six  satires  appears  to 
have  been  left  unfinished,  that  is,  if  Persius  had  lived  longer 
he  would  have  added  others ;  the  sixth,  also,  had  no  proper 
conclusion,  whence  Cornutus,  by  deleting  a  few  lines,  pro- 
duced a  kind  of  suitable  termination  to  it.     Cornutus  himself 
did  not  publish  the  satires,  but  left  the  editing  of  them  to 
C^sius  Bassus.     On  their  appearance  they  are  said  to  have 
filled  the  public  with  great  admiration.     The  only  one  of  the 
six  poems  that  can  be  called  a  real  satire  is  the  first,  which 
is  directed  against  the  bad  taste  of  the  poets  and  the  public 
of  his  time ;  the  remaining  five  are  poetical  declamations  on 
points  of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  which  he  tries  to  recommend 
to  his  readers  as  leading  to  a  happy  life.     They  bear  all  the 
characteristics  of  a  young  man  who  knows  little  of  life;  they 
abound  in  dramatic  scenes,  which  are  often  almost  burlesque. 
The  characters,  images,  and  expressions  are  to  a  large  extent 
borrowed  from  Horace,  but  often  spoiled  by  Peraius'  own 
additions.     His  language  is  unnatural,  forced,  and  obscure. 
Persius  was  evidently  not  a  poet  born;  but  tried  to  make 


A.D.  14-GOO.] 


M.   AJfN^tJS  LtJCANtS. 


149 


himself  one  by  hai-d  and  slow  toil.  His  character  as  a  man 
deserves  great  admiration  and  esteem  on  account  of  his 
earnestness,  his  gentleness,  and  his  moral  purity,  in  the 
midst  of  so  much  corruption  and  vice.  The  commentary  on 
the  satires  of  Persius,  which  has  come  down  to  us  under  the 
name  of  Cornutus,  is  the  production  of  a  very  late  gram- 
marian,* 

133.  M.  Annaeus  Lucanus,  a  nephew  of  the  philosopher 
Seneca  (whose  brother,  Annseus  Mela,  was  the  father  of 
Lucan),  was  bom  in  a.d.  39,  at  Corduba,  in  Spain.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  brought  to  Rome,  where  he  was  instructed 
by  Cornutus,  and  became  the  friend  of  Persius.  His  uncle, 
Seneca,  recommended  him  to  the  Emperor  Nero,  who  raised 
him  to  the  ofiices  of  quaestor  and  augur;  but  as  Lucan  was 
attracting  much  public  attention  by  his  poetical  productions, 
which,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  time,  he  recited  in 
public,  Nero,  influenced  by  jealousy,  forbade  him  to  continue 
such  recitals.  Afterwards  Lucan,  because  it  was  alleged 
that  he  had  taken  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  was  con- 
demned to  death.  Lucan  then  ordered  his  veins  to  be 
opened  by  a  surgeon,  and  died,  a.d.  65,  at  the  early  age  of 
twenty-seven.  He  was  manied  to  PoUa  Argentaria,  a  lady 
of  a  highly  cultivated  mind. 

Next  to  Vergil,  Lucan  is  the  most  eminent  epic  poet  in 
Latin  literature.  His  productive  power  must  have  been 
immense,  if  we  consider  the  number  of  works  which  he  com- 
posed during  his  short  life.  Of  most  of  them  we  know  little 
more  than  their  titles,  as,  e.g.^  Hectoris  Lytra ;  Orpheus,  in 
three  books;  Iliacon  and  Catachthonion  libri,  Catalogus  Hero- 
idum,  Saturnalia,  Silvce,  Medea,  and  others.  Most  of  these 
poems  treated  of  subjects  connected  with  Greek  mythology, 
and  some  of  them  were  perhaps  youthful  and  unripe  produc- 
tions, or  even  mere  improvizations ;  but  all  of  them  are  lost, 
and  we  possess  of  his  works  only  one  epigram  and  a  great 
epic  poem  entitled  Pharsalia,  in  ten  books,  which,  however, 
was  left  in  an  incomplete  state  by  the  poet,  for  the  tenth 
book  is  evidently  not  finished.     Its  subject  is  the  civil  war 

*  The  best  critical  edition  of  the  satires  of  Persius  is  that  of  0. 
Jahn :  Leipzig,  1843 ;  which  also  contains  the  ancient  commentary. 
A  good  school  edition  is  that  of  A  Pretor :  London,  1869. 


150 


HISTORIC  OF   LATIN  LITERATURE.  [pERIOD  t. 


between  Csesar  and  Pompey,  and  the  poet  describes  in  chrono- 
logical order,  and  with  historical  fidelity,  the  events  of  the 
struggle  from  its  outbreak  down  to  the  siege  of  Alexan- 
dria. As  many  of  the  works  referring  to  that  war  are  lost, 
Lucan's  poem  is  of  great  historical  impoi'tance  to  us.  The 
poetical  and  oratorical  powers  of  the  author  appear  most 
strikingly  in  his  descriptions  of  exciting  or  pathetic  scenes, 
and  in  the  delineations  of  the  principal  characters.  Poetical 
invention  was  scarcely  required  in  such  a  poem;  but,  as  a  true 
disciple  of  the  Stoa,  the  poet  throughout  shows  a  mind  far 
above  everyiihing  low  or  vulgar,  and  he  seems  to  have  chosen 
the  subject  of  the  civil  war  just  because  it  offered  him  oppor- 
tunities of  expressing  his  feelings  of  grief  and  sorrow  at  the 
loss  of  freedom  among  his  countrymen.  The  strong  mind 
and  the  genuine  Roman  sentiments  of  the  young  poet  cannot 
fail  to  win  our  esteem  and  admiration.  His  style  is  vigor- 
ous and  full  of  force,  though  not  without  a  strong  rhetorical 
colouring ;  but  it  lacks  the  polish  of  Vergil :  the  same  may 
be  said  of  his  versification.  Quintilian  justly  remarks  that 
the  Pharsalia  is  a  history  rather  than  a  poem.  It  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  very  popular,  and  to  have  induced 
some  of  the  later  grammarians  to  write  commentaries  upon 
it,  some  of  which  we  still  possess.* 

134.  CaBsius  Bassus,  a  friend  of  Persius  and  editor  of  his 
satires,  is  said  to  have  perished  in  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
A.D.  79.  He  is  mentioned  by  QuintUian  as  the  only  lyric 
poet  worthy  of  the  name  after  Horace.  The  same  is  inti- 
mated in  Persius'  sixth  satire,  which  is  addressed  to  him. 
He  is  probably  the  same  Csesius  Bassus  who  wrote  a  didactic 
poem  on  metres.  In  the  third  century  this  work  was  made 
the  basis  of  a  prose  manual  on  metres,  with  many  alterations ; 
but  the  part  treating  of  the  metres  of  Hoi'ace  is  perhaps  a 
faithful  transcript  of  a  portion  of  Bassius'  work. 

"We  hear  of  a  few  other  men  who  wrote  poetry  during  the 
reign  of  Nero,  such  as  Vagellius,  Curtius  Nomentanus,  and 
Serroniusj  but  nothing  is  known  of  them  except  their  names* 

135.  Petronius  Arbiter. — Under  this  name  we  have  a  kind 
of  comic  romance,  entitled  Satirce  or  Satiricon  (libri),  which 

^  *  The  best  modem  edition  of  Lucan  is  that  of  C.  F.  Weber:  Leip- 
zig, 1821,  ia  3  vols.,  which  also  contains  the  ancient  scholia. 


A.D.  14  600.1 


PETRONIUS   ARBITER. 


151 


seems  originally  to  have  formed  a  voluminous  work  of  about 
twenty  books,  describing  all  sorts  of  adventures;  but  we 
now  possess  only  a  number  of  fragments,  the  longest  of  which 
contains  a  description  of  the  supper  of  Trimalchio  (Cena 
Trimalchionis),  a  wealthy  but  uneducated  upstart,  who  affects 
to  be  a  gentleman.  It  is  written  in  prose,  but  largely  inter- 
spei*sed  with  poetry,  in  the  manner  of  the  ancient  Menippean 
satire.  It  is  full  of  coarse  and  obscene  passages,  but  very 
instructive  in  regard  to  the  manners,  morals,  and  the  lan- 
guage of  the  time.  The  author  is  a  man  of  great  ability,  full 
of  wit  and  humour,  and  displays  a  very  minute  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  human  life  and  human  characters.  The  metri- 
cal parts  are  mostly  parodies  of  the  poets  of  the  time.  The 
principal  speaker  is  a  freedman,  Encolpius,  who  describes 
the  adventures  he  has  met  with  during  a  journey  in  company 
with  another  freedman,  Ascyltus,  and  a  boy.  The  scene  is 
laid  in  Southern  Italy,  and  the  time  is  the  reign  of  Tiberius ; 
but  there  are  also  allusions  to  persons  who  lived  under 
Caligula  and  Nero.  The  author  has  great  skill  in  the 
delineation  of  characters,  which  he  allows  to  develop  them- 
selves in  their  own  words  and  speeches.  Thus  Encolpius 
uses  the  language  of  a  gentleman  of  the  Augustan  age,  while 
most  of  the  other  speakers,  especially  Trimalchio,  speak  the 
language  of  vulgar  uneducated  people,  full  of  all  manner  of 
irregularities.  The  poetical  pieces  are  generally  put  into  the 
mouth  of  the  vain  and  absurd  Eumolpus,  as  is  the  case  in 
Chapter  XCIV.,  where  he  describes  the  taking  of  Troy 
(Troice  halosis),  and  in  Chapters  CXIV.-CXXIV.,  where  he 
parodies  the  poetry  on  the  civil  war  (beUum  civile). 

Who  the  author  was,  and  at  what  time  he  lived,  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  speculation  and  conjecture;  some  critics 
have  regarded  him  as  a  contemporary  of  Augustus,  while 
others  have  been  inclined  to  place  him  as  late  as  the  third 
Christian  century,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  Sevenis.  It  is. 
now,  however,  pretty  generally  admitted  that  the  author 
must  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Nero.  In  the  reign  of  this 
emperor,  Tacitus  speaks  of  a  notorious  courtier,  C.  Petronius, 
who  was  the  most  intimate  friend  of  Nero,  and  the  great 
panderer  to  his  pleasures  and  fancies,  and  all  that  the  his- 
torian relates  of  him  seems  to  point  him  out  as  the  most 


152 


HISTORY   OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [pERIOD  V. 


'likely  man  to  write  such  a  work ;  but  it  must  be  owned  that 
Tacitus  does  not  intimate  that  C.  Petronius  composed  any- 
work  at  all.  The  cause  or  origin  of  the  surname  Arbiter  is 
likewise  unknown.* 

136.  There  are  a  few  other  poets  of  less  importance  belong- 
ing, in  all  probability,  to  the  period  of  the  Julian  emperors. 

1.  T^  Calpumius  Siculus  is  known  to  us  only  as  the  author 
of  seven  eclogues,  in  which,  with  great  exaggeration,  he 
imitates  Theocritus  and  Yergil.  He  shows  but  little  taste, 
and  indulges  in  abject  flattery  to  Nero. 

2.  AurelitLS  Nemesianus^  a  native  of  Carthage ;  by  him  we 
have  four  eclogues,  which  are  much  inferior  to  those  of  Cal- 
pumius, though  they  have  sometimes  been  treated  as  pro- 
ductions of  the  same  author,  f 

3.  To  the  same  period  belongs  the  anonymous  didactic 
ipoem.  JEtna,  consisting  of  645  well  constructed  hexameter  lines. 
It  is  written  in  a  dry  didactic  style,  but  the  author  vigorously 
combats  the  current  superstitious  notions  about  the  nature 
of  the  volcano.  The  language,  which  at  times  rises  to  the 
height  of  real  poetry,  is  a  pretty  successful  imitation  of 
Vergil.  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  JEtna  is  the 
work  of  Lucilius,  the  youthful  friend  of  Seneca,  who  speaks 
of  uEtna  as  a  poem  of  Lucilius.  The  poem,  which  has 
several  gaps,  used  to  be  printed  together  with  the  works  of 
Vergil.  I 

4.  A  Latin  abridgment  of  Homers  Iliady  for  the  use  of 
schools.  It  consists  of  1075  hexameter  lines,  and  the  first 
part  is  almost  a  translation,  but  further  on  it  becomes  a 
meagre  abridgment.  Vergil  and  Ov4d  are  also  laid  under  con- 
siderable contribution ;  the  versification  is  careful  and  correct. 
That  the  author  lived  under  Claudius  or  Nero  is  rendered 
probable  by  several  expressions  and  allusions  occurring  in 
the  poem;  but  who  he  was  is  quite  unknown. || 

*  The  first  really  critical  edition  of  Petronius  is  that  of  Fr.  BUchler: 
Berlin,  1862. 

t  The  best  edition  of  these  writers  of  eclogues  is  that  of  E.  C. 
Glseser:  Gottingen,  1842. 

t  The  best  separate  edition  is  that  of  H.  A.  J.  Munro:  Cambridge, 
1867. 

II  This  abridgement  is  printed  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Wemsdorf 't 
Poetce  Lat.  Minor es. 


I 


t 


A.n.  14-600.] 


C.    PLiNItTS   SECtJNDtTS. 


153 


/ 


137.  By  the  death  of  Nero  (a.d.  68)  the  Julian  dynasty 
became  extinct,  and  the  few  troubled  years  under  Galba, 
Otho,  and  Vitellius  are  of  no  importance  in  the  history  of 
literature.  The  reign  of  Vespasian  (a.d.  69-79),  and  of  his 
son  Titus  (a.d.  79,  80),  promised,  in  some  respects,  better 
times;  but  Domitian  (a.d.  81-96)  threw  everything  back 
again,  and  the  end  of  the  first  century  became  much  worse 
than  its  beginning  had  been. 

Vespasian,  himself  not  unskilled  as  an  orator,  both  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  promoted  certain  branches  of  literature  by  giving 
fixed  annual  salaries  to  Latin  and  Greek  teachers  of  rhetoric, 
and  by  liberally  rewarding  poetical  effbi*ts ;  but  he  expelled 
the  philosophers  from  Rome,  because  he  believed  them  to 
be  republicans,  and  dangerous  to  the  internal  peace  of  the 
empire.  The  following  are  the  most  distinguished  writers 
during  the  reign  of  Vespasian  and  Titus  : — 

138.  C.  Plinius  Secundus,  commonly  called  the  elder 
Pliny.  There  is  no  trustworthy  account  of  his  life,  and  we 
are  dependent  for  our  information  upon  the  letters  of  his 
nephew,  the  younger  Pliny,  and  upon  any  chance  remarks 
that  occur  in  his  own  work.  As  at  the  eruption  of  Mount 
Vesuvius  in  a.d.  79,  when  he  perished,  he  was  fifty-six  years 
old,  he  must  have  been  born  in  a.d.  23.  He  was  a  native  of 
Northern  Italy,  being  born  either  at  Verona  or  at  Como, 
where  his  family  owned  considerable  estates.  About  his 
education  we  know  nothing ;  but  he  seems  to  have  been  at 
Home  before  he  had  reached  his  twentieth  year,  and  at  the 
age  of  twenty-two  he  commanded  a  detachment  of  Roman 
cavalry  in  Germany.  In  A.D.  52,  after  quitting  the  army, 
he  spent  his  time  partly  at  Rome  and  partly  at  Como,  ap- 
parently devoting  himself  to  reading  and  study.  In  a.d.  57 
we  find  him  in  the  position  of  procurator  of  Spain.  That  he 
also  visited  Africa  is  clear  from  his  own  work ;  but  it  is 
uncertain  when  this  took  place.  He  must  have  been  per- 
sonally acquainted  with  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  as  he  is 
said  to  have  paid  him  visits  early  in  the  morning,  before  the 
emperor  attended  to  his  own  business.  Shortly  before  his 
death  he  is  mentioned  as  commander  of  the  fleet  stationed 
at  Misenum ;  and  it  was  during  his  stay  there  that 
the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  took   place,   during  which    he 


,154  HISTORY   OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

fell  a  victim  to  his  curiosity  in  watching  the  terrible  catas- 
trophe. 

Pliny  is  called  by  the  ancients  the  most  learned  man  of 
his  age,  and  his  extraordinary  activity  is  well  described  by 
his  nephew,  from  whom  we  also  receive  information  about 
many  works  which  he  wrote,  but  which  are  now  lost.  AmoDg 
them  we  may  mention: — 

1.  De  Jaculaiione  Equesti\  in  one  book,  which  he  wrote 
while  commanding  a  body  of  cavalry  in  Germany. 

2.  De  Vita  Pomponii  iSecumlij  in  two  books. 

3.  A  work  on  the  wai-s  between  the  Komans  and  Gonnans, 
in  twenty  books,  which  he  commenced  while  servinsr  in 
Germany. 

4.  A  history  of  Eome,  in  thirty-one  books,  commencing 
at  the  point  where  the  history  of  Aufidius  Bassus  ended. 

6.  Studiosif  in  three  books,  on  the  tmining  of  an  omtor. 

G.  Dubii  Semwnisy  in  eight  books,  was  a  grammatical  work 
written  during  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Nero;  it  was 
extensively  used  by  later  gi-ammarians,  though  it  also  met 
with  much  opposition. 

To  these  must  be  added  160  commentarii  electoruni,  a 
collection  of  extracts  from  various  works,  which  were  found 
after  his  death. 

The  only  work  of  Pliny  that  has  come  down  to  us  is  his 
Naturalls  Ilisiona,  in  thirty-seven  books,  tlio  first  of  which, 
however,  only  gives  the  contents  of  the  whole  work  and  the 
authorities,  together  with  a  dedication  to  Titus,  which  must 
have  been  written  in  a.d.  77.  This  work  is  a  gigantic  com- 
pilation made  from  upwards  of  2000  volumes;  it  is,  in  fact, 
a  kind  of  encyclopredia,  in  which  the  compiler  has  collected 
for  purposes  of  instruction  everything  which  ho  thought 
worth  knowing.  Some  books  treat  of  physics  and  astronomy, 
others  of  geography,  natuml  history,  medicines,  and  of  the 
history  of  art.  In  many  of  these  departments  Pliny  himself 
was  only  an  amateur,  and  without  any  thorough  knowledge  of 
what  he  was  writing  about,  whence  it  is  not  difficult  to  dis- 
cover mistakes  of  every  kind,  whose  number  is  further  in- 
creased by  the  haste  and  carelessness  with  which  the  authoi* 
seems  to  have  made  his  extracts  from  books.  Pliny's  own 
nephew  calls  the  work  an  ojms  dij'usum,  cruditum  nee  minus 


it 


A.I..  14-600.]  C.  VALERICS  FLACCtJS,  1&5 

varium  qrmm  ipsa  natura;  but  notwitl.3tanding  ^^l^^^t^l 
natural  history  of  Pliny  is  to  us  a  real  mine  of  f^°'°'^}'°^ 
nSewwVinabi;  ^  most  of  «^«  XJ^f-^jS 
he  made  his  extracts  are  now  lost.     Plmy  s  style  isneituer 
eiv  nor  attmctivc.  but  often  concise  and  forcible.     He  does 
XtUch  himself'  to  any  special  school  o    pl'^-^^Jy^'J 
views  are  of  a  pantheistic  nature:  for  God  is  to  him  identical 
IT^ dre,  to  whose  action  all  phenomena  are  trace^We^* 
139   M   Licinius  Crassus  Mucianus,  known  in  histoiy 
„«  tho  man  who  was  most  active  in  Bccuri..«  tho  imperial 
.  Thrt  toVeitaT   B-ing^hat  emperor's  rcjgn  he  see.s 

to  have  withdrawn  from  public  life,  "^^  \  *^  ''^^^^Xma- 
himself  to  coUecting  historical  memoirs  ai^<lk"«s  the  tormei 
in  ftt  least  eleven  books,  and  the  latter  m  three.  The  iormer 
^e^  to  hrvTLmewhai  resembled  the  miscelkneous  work  of 
pZ  who  often  refers  to  it  and  derived  from  it  some  of  h« 
S'ilc^dible  and  absurd  statements.  T^iere  are  a  few 
other  men  who,  at  this  time,  wrote  about  contemporary 
etente  but  whose  productions,  like  those  of  Mucianus,  a.-e 
entrrelVlost  as  M.  Cluvius  Rufus,  Vipstanus  Messala,  and 
llSEuliirus.  Rhetorical  and  legal  ^^J^^ .  ^^^^^t 
under  Yespasian  and  Titus ;  but  no  works  of  any  importance 

"^  U  J^tS otly  poet  of  the  time  of  Vespasian  whose  work 
hal  Le  do°m  to  us  is  C.  ValeriuB  Flaccus,  the  author  of 
l^e^rvZ,c.MeAArgonautica.  ^othng  is  knov^  about  , 
him  except  that  he  must  have  died  about  a.d.  89;.  ^V'^^^^' 
tfi^re  Lne  as  the  one  whoni  Martial  advises  to  aW^^^ 
noetrv  and  devote  himself  to  the  more  lucrative  protession 
of  the  kw.  il  more  than  doubtful.  Iho  Aroonautu:aoi 
ValS^us  F  acL,-  consisting  of  eight  books    and  wntten 

S^-orL^'  ^- aTJZifl^^S . 

.  -n.ebest  critical  edition  of  Pliny  U  that  of  J^Sm^«--j^S- 
1831-36.  in  five  vols.     A  good  edition  of  the  text  is  viw 
ner'B  wUection  o£  the  classics,  by  L.  Jam  m  6  vols. 


fi 


156  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATOEE.         [pfiRlOD  V, 

m^e*  ^"'    ^^    '^    °^^'^    declamatory,    bombastic,    and 

.J^^""-  ?°^^r  ^  *^''  "'"^'  ^^°^«  ''°'-k3  however  are  lost, 
me  Curtatow  jl/aimiw,  who  wrote  tragedies,  such  as  J/erfea 

Sfoetr'n''  ?:r  ^?^P'^''',V"'  '''"'  «<=«'""  ^  ''"ve  written 

e  ^V  IT^'  P°"'"'T  ^"^'^'''f  "l^"  ''I'lX"'"  to  have  attempted 

^  1  aF  t7  *'"""«  *^^  '■^'S"  °f  his  fatlier.  '     ■ 

141.    Ihe  reign  of  Domitian  (a.d.  81-96)  and  its  bnital 

despohsm  as^m  crushed  every  aspi.ution  i.(  the  moml  aS 

so  far  as  it  was  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  base  informera- 

offSr^  ^"'°7  T''^  ""''  ^'  -"''^^  from  frr "/ 
rirfl  if  1  T^';"'^^'.'  ^y"^"*'  ^"'^  tl^o^e  ^ho  would  not 
iisk  their  lives  had  to  be  silent,  or  to  degrade  themselves  by 

cSdTdttitT'?r*n  Those  who\dopted  the  E 
course  did  so  either  through  fear  and  weakness  of  character 

subw''  '^'^  ^P^'^  *°  '""^fi'  themsekes  by  XvS 
submissiveness.     A  certain  kind  of  poetir  was  fostered  W 

public  contests  and  recitations;  but  no  poTt  codd  bTs^  of 
success  unless  he  lavished  pi^ise  and  flattciy  upon  t£  Scslt 

of  Ifr""  ""T^'  ^'^, ''°'  «'"^''  •'"'  that  they  were  notTn 

o1trt:nTa'p;;stt^^°"^'^^''- ''''  p"-^p^  -^^^ 

acquu^d  reputation  both  as  an  oftitor  and  a  poet  and  ^ 
^.T>.  68,  he  ^as  raised  by  Nero  to  the  consulship  afterThicT 

Asir  H"t-'^  ^".''^  '^',  administi^tion  of  th*^  p^^vir<^'5 
Asia.    After  his  return  ho  withdrew  from  publ  c  life  ami 

pS  iursdtf '  #  r^  "",''  '''■^"^^'  1-oCg  hii.Jelf^'tJ 

Of  his  poetical  production,  we  stHl  Lave  an  epos,  entitled 

a  coItZ^&'^^^^  '\lt  ^/^cus  by  K  R  Lemaire.  with    , 
Halle,  1863.  '  ^^^'  ^  '''^-    ^  fi^«^  text  is  that  of  G.  Thilo; 


A.D.  14-600.] 


p.   PAPINIUS  BTATIUS. 


157 


■  fi-  5 


■'  t 


Funica,  in  eighteen  books,  which  gives  a  poetical  account  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  mainly  based  on  the  histoiy  of  Livy. 
In  accordance  with  the  prevailing  taste  of  the  age  it  is 
written  in  a  rhetoncal  and  declamatory  style;  but  in  the 
main'  the  author  adopted  the  language  and  versification  of 
Vergil,  whom  he  veneitited  almost  like  a  god.  Though  the 
subject  is  historical,  tlio  poem  abounds  in  mythological 
allusions,  and  in  learning  of  every  kind.  Martial  who,  of 
course,  is  lavish  in  his  praise  of  the  wealthy  Silius  Italicus, 
states  that  the  Punicay  on  its  first  api)earance,  was  received 
with  great  applause.  Whether  this  is  true  or  not,  we  cannot 
say,  but  certain  it  is  that  the  poem  soon  fell  into  oblivion; 
in  fact,  every  ti'ace  of  it  was  lost  until  a.d.  1417,  when  a 
MS.  of  it  was  discovered  by  Poggio,  in  Switzerland.* 

143.  P.  Papinius  Statius  was  the  son  of  a  distinguished 
Neapolitan  gi-ammarian  of  the  same  naftie,  by  whom  he  was 
most  carefully  educated.  Even  before  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  A.D.  80,  he  had  acquired  considerable  reputation 
by  the  beauty  of  his  extempomneous  pixkluctions,  and  by 
the  recitation  at  Rome  of  a  portion  of  his  epic  poem  TJiehais. 
Afterwards  he  withdrew  to  Naples,  either  because  he  had 
been  defeated  in  a  poetical  contest  at  Rome,  or  for  some 
other  reason  unknown  to  us.  He  must  have  been  bom 
about  A.D.  47,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  survived  the 
Emperor  Domitian.  There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the 
Statius  mentioned  by  Juvenal  as  a  poet  living  in  poverty, 
is  the  same  as  Papinius  Statius,  who  throughout  appears  to 
have  lived  in  easy  circumstances.  Whenever  he  alludes  to 
Domitian,  or  any  one  connected  with  the  coui-t,  he  speaks  of 
them  with  the  most  fulsome  adulation.  He  wrote  many 
poems  to  pixler  for  peraons  of  rank  and  influence.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  a  weak  and  timid  character, 
and  certainly  did  not  write  as  he  felt,  for  while  he  freely 
censured  the  dead  Caligula  and  Nero,  he  flatters  Domitian 
in  a  disgusting  manner.  In  language,  and  in  the  construc- 
tion of  his  verses,  ho  scrupulously  follows  Vergil.  Ilia 
works  are: — 

1.  Thebais,  an  epic  poem  in  twelve  books,  on  which  the 

*  The  principal  editions  are  those  of  Drakenborch;  Utrecht,  1717^ 
and  Euperti:  Qottingen,  1795,  in  2  vols.  -  ; 


158  HISTORY  OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

author  was  engaged  during  twelve  years.  It  describes  the 
feuds  between  the  brothei-s  Eteocles  and  Polynices.  The  first 
ten  books  are  most  diffuse,  full  of  long  speeches,  and  descrip- 
tions of  preparations  for  the  contest,  while  the  last  two,  as 
if  the  poet  had  become  tired  of  his  work,  describe  the  final 
contest  in  a  very  summary  manner.  The  poem  has  few 
merits,  for  its  language  is  sometimes  bombastic  and  some- 
times obscure  by  its  artificial  brevity;  the  delineations  of 
the  charactei^,  their  motives  of  action,  and  the  arrangements 
of  the  detail  also  leave  much  to  be  desired. 

2.^  Achilleis,  in  two  books,  is  an  unfinished  epic.  The 
poet's  intention  was  to  give  the  complete  story  of  Achilles 
from  his  birth  to  his  death;  but  he  did  not  finish  it,  and  the 
fragment  closes  with  the  scene  where  Achilles  is  found  out 
by  Ulysses,  and  obliged  to  join  the  expedition  against  Troy. 
The  style  of  the  poem  is  less  bombastic  and  forced  than  that 
of  the  Thehais,  but  equally  diffuse. 

3.  Silvce,  in  five  books,  is  a  collection  of  thirty-two  poems 
written  on  various  occasions,  and  some  of  them  to  order. 
The  several  books  appear  to  have  been  published  successively* 
and  in  chronological  order,  with  an  address  in  prose  to  the 
pei-son  to  whom  the  book  was  dedicated.  The  fii-st  book 
cannot  have  been  written  before  a.d.  90,  whence  the  last 
may  be  assigned  to  A.D.  95.  Most  of  these  poems  are  written 
in  hexameter  verse,  and  are  valuable  as  pictures  of  Roman 
life  at  the  time,  showing  the  poet  to  have  been  a  man  of 
honourable  but  weak  character.* 

144.  M.  Valerius  Martialis  was  bom  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain, 
about  A.D.  43.  At  the  age  of  22  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
lived  for  many  years,  and  survived  the  Emperor  Domitian. 
Considering  his  brilliant  talents,  he  might  have  secured  an 
honourable  and  independent  existence,  but  he  prefen-ed,  as 
he  hmiself  says,  casu  vivere,  that  is,  to  live  as  a  retainer  and 
flatterer  of  wealthy  friends,  to  write  poems  to  order,  and  to 
soUcit  gifts  from  the  powerful.  He  often  alludes  to  his 
poverty,  and  craves  the  assistance  of  friends,  though  he  him- 
self occasionally  speaks  with  contempt  of  those  who  followed 
a  similar  coui-se.     From  Domitian,  who,  according  to  him, 

T>  *'^^itii^^-  ^^®™  editions  of  Statius  are  those  of  Pr.  Dubner- 
rana^  1830,  m  2  vols.;  and  of  G,  Queck:  Leipzig,  1854,  ia  2  vols. 


*#•'■' 


A.D.  14-  600.] 


VESTRICIUS  SPURINNA. 


159 


was  the  very  pattern  of  a  good  and  wise  ruler,  he  received 
honours  and  titles,  and  apparently,  also,  a  small  estate  near 
Momentum.     That  he  did  not  praise  the  tyrant  because  he 
really  believed  him  to  deserve  it,  but  because  he  hoped  to 
benefit  himself  thereby,  is  clear  from  the  fact  that,   like 
Statius,  he  blamed  Nero,  and  spoke  in  high  praise  of  such 
men  as  Arria  and  Thrasea  Psetus.     We  cannot,  therefore 
speak  of  Martial's  personal  character  without  a  feelin<^  of 
disgust  and  contempt.     His  works  consist  of  a  collectioS  of 
epigrams,  in  fifteen  books,  the  subject  of  which  is  the  social 
life  of  the  Romans  of  his  day,  with  all  its  immoralities  and 
servility.     He  seems  to  gloat  over  what  is  frivolous  and 
licentious,   and  to  be  totally  devoid  of  the  sense  of  mor- 
ality and  manly  honour.     As  a  poet,  however,   he   ranks 
very  high,  and  his  epigrams  are  distinguished  for  their  ease 
and  elegance.     They   are  mostly  composed   in  the  elegiac 
metre. '^  ° 

145.  Tlie  number  of  persons  who  wrote  poetry  in  the  reign 
of  Domitian  was  immense;  it  was  a  fashion,  or  rather  mania 
to  make  verses  and  recite  them  at  private  meetings  of  friends' 
or  m  public;  few  of  them,  however,  seem  to  have  been  pub- 
lished. We  shall  name  only  a  few  of  the  more  prominent 
poets  of  this  class : — 

Z.  Arruntius  Stella,  of  Naples,  was  consul  in  a.d.  101   and 
a  friend  of  Statius  who,  as  well  as  Martial,  often  mentions 
1  1.  -^^,7^'^*^  ^^'o*ic  elegies,  addressed  to  the  beautiful  and 
wealthy  Violentilla,  whom  he  afterwards  married. 

Tiirnus,  a  freedman,  who  rose  to  high  honours  under  the 
lUavian  emperors,  wrote  satires,  while  his  brother  Sccevius 
Memor  composed  ti-agedies. 

Verginius  mi/us  was  consul  three  times,  and  died,  a.d. 
93,  during  his  third  consulship.  He  was  a  friend  of  the 
younger  Plmy,  who  mentions  him  among  writers  of  erotic 
poetry. 

Vestricius  Spurinna  is  described  as  a  fresh  and  cheerful 
old  man,  in  a.d.  101,  and  as  engaged  in  writing  lyric  poetry, 

wm    Gnmma   1842;  and  the  text  m  Teubner's  collection.     A  good 

Tor  1875   '  ''"*"'  ^"^  ^' '"^  '^*"^  ^^  ^-  ^-  ^"^^r-  ^^^' 


^«0  --0-0.™,,,,^,,,^,        ^^^^^^^^_ 

both  m  Latin  and  in  Grppt      t     ..• 
distinguislied  himself  in  the  w»r  ,     •  ^f  "f  y^*"^  ''e  Lad 
Germany;  i„  ^.i>.  59  h^had  foZht  f  T  *¥  ^'■"«*«".  « 
under  Domitian  he  wJ^Zl7.^.^       *^^  ''''°  "^  Otlio,  and 
Stapicia,  the  wifpT,Tp  .       ^,-f'^  consulship. 

We  st^l  Possi'^tirJht'r^'etSA^^  P-*".. 

a  satire,  expressing  noble  and^  n„H^?-  ^J'T'"®'^'"  ''"es  of 

extremely  doubtfurwheLSera™hV'''r^'.  *"''  '*  « 
erotic  poetess.     Thev  seem  mfh?  f  u     ,  P™d"ction  of  the 

-ode      p^t  of  thelfShtnLy  *^  '''^  ^^"^"^  °f  --« 

at  all  eve^ts"^  Q'Man Ts  eSaSl"  ^p'^"-  °^  ••''«*°™' 
bad  ample  opportunities  of  hLt'       i^-  *'  ^'""«'  and  there 
rhetoricians.^'  In"  D  6,  he  o?^  distinguished  omtore  and 
and  returned  with^L  1 1  sT   aT'^  ^^'^^  ^^*^  Spain, 
to  have  adopted  the  pr'ofeSion  of  /  f  '^^'  ^'""^  ^'  ''^^^ 
law  and  also  to  have  del  vered  decf.^ .''  '"^  '^'  "=°"'t«  °f 
subjects.  Some  few  specimens  of  1,;^''*'°"'  on  imaginary 
and  he  complains  thaHme  of  h^r*">7"f  ^'"'  «^tant,+ 
down  by  his  hearers  and  publish  r-"',^-'"'^  ^'^''  *^ken 
gained  his  greatest  reput^t  on  ^f  TT^  '"'  ^"'^  but  he 

was  the  fi-^t^rhetoriciar^horecd^efa  r  f  °'^*°'-^'  ^^'^ 
from  the  fiscus.    He  had  verv  mt?       .,  v^''.'"'  *"»"«'  salary 
snch  as  theyounger  S-  aTT('"v'^'*'°«"'^''«''P"l'il«. 
the  education  of  the  Sdsons  o^T    "''.  ^''^'''^'^  to  him 
conferred  upon  him  tlT  dSt  "of  aT*'^  ^°"!^""^'  '''"<» 
conld  not  but  feel  gmteful  fii.     °  ,,    ,'^°n.«"lar.     Quintilian 
further  bear  in  mind  the  usua5  T     '"'^^rtions,  and  if  we 
emperor  at  the  time,  we  caZot  h«     ''''  °^  'P*''''''"^  ^^  the 
manner  in  which  he  menUr,  t     T^""^  "P°°  the  flattering 
to  have  acquired  a  coSraUe?„'f''°°-  ,  ^"^"tilian  seem? 
been   engaged  in  teaThinT  *•  ''t'  '^'^'ch.  after  havin.. 

enabled  fi^  to  retire  ^t  T.  IJ^'t.  1  '""'Tj  ^--• 
13  unknown,  though  it  mnJ  t.  ^®  *™®  °^  ^^^  death 

His  own  work,  as  we  ]  ^  tt  w'  """'"''r'  ^''^""^  *•"•  106. 
:  See  Wemsd  rf  ^1^!'^'*""°"^^  ''^  "*''«-'  ^I^--  that 
t  See  Meyer,  Ora/C^C-^'n^'^"'-  '"-  P'  «'>  ^'U- 


A.D.  14-600.] 


SEX.  JULIUS  FKONTINUS. 


161 


QuintUian  was  a  man  of  a  mild  and  humane  disposition,  that 
he  enjoyed  his  high  position  without  pride  or  aLgan^'  and 
was  always  ready  to  acknowledge  the  merits  of  othei" 

thZT  ^  ^^**  r'^  ^^'''^  ^^  ^till  possess,  we  know 
that  he  also  wrote  others  which  are  lost,  sich  as  i)«  CauZ 

m^T  f^^r:''^-  His  most  important  work  beai^The 
title  De  Imhtutwne  Oratoria,  in  twelve  books.  It  was 
trL°  '•.f"'.^  withdmwal  from  the  profession  oiZ 
teacher  within  the  space  of  two  years,  and  comprises  the 
matured  results  of  a  long  experience.  The  workf  wSch  is 
trontdd'^  to  Victorius  Marcelh.s,  begins  with  an'intrlc! 

slvs  fhlrr  w   ^^  •P""^'?''^  '^JP^°-     Tl^^  »^thor  himself 
says  that  the  work  is  not  intended  for  boys,  but  for  good 

and  studious  young  men.     It  contains  a  complete  system  of 
instruction  for  a  future  orator,  illustrating  the  various  pri^ 
ciples  by  examples^and  giving  most  valuable  hints  on  XI 
of  tl,r.f  °- "^f     ?^  especially  recommends  a  careful  study 

to  the    nT.  .  '"^f  r  ?  ^f".  ^«"^S^^'  ^°<»  this  leads  him 
to  give  in  the  tenth  book  a  brief  critical  survey  of  the  history 
of  Greek  and  Latin  literature.     In  establishing  his  tWy 
of  oratory,  he  mainly  follows  Cicero;  but  taking  him  as  his 
basis  he  constructs  an  independent  system,  enr&hed  by  his 
own  experience.     Qumtiliaai  knew  the  corrupt  taste  of  his 
age  and  endeavoured  to  counteract  the  prevailing  vicious 
style  of  oratory,  but  was  himself  unable  entirely  to  emanci' 
pate  himself  from  its  influence.     His  style  is  indeed  free 
from  bombast  and  the  usual  rhetorical  embellishments;  but 
the  influence  of  the  times  shows  itself  occasionallv  ii  the 
harshne^  of  his  expressions,  and  in  the  compleity  and 
awkwardness  in  the  construction  of  his  periods  * 

There  were  sevei-al  contemporaries  of  Quintilian  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  orators,  but  some  of  them  abused 
their  powera  by  acting  as  informers. 

nfltL^^t /""'''  Prontinus,  bom  about  a.d.  40,  was  one 
tL  M„^  .  honourable  characters  of  this  period,  and  rose  to 
the  highest  honours  by  his  own  merits.     In  a.d.  70  he  was 

o  *,  J*"®  best  critical  edition  of  Quintilian  is  that  bemn  W  P   T 
SpaJding  m  1798,  and  completed  by  C.  G.  Zumpt  aifE   &nneU' 
^8H  m  6  vols.    A  good  text  w«  edited  by  Bol^^l^^^Tm, 


■4*"' 


162 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


praetor  urbanus;  in  a.d.  74  he  was  sent  as  proconsul  into 
Britain,  to  succeed  Petilius  Cerealis,  and  subdued  the  power- 
ful and  warlike  tribe  of  the  Silures.  He  also  appears  to 
have  taken  part  in  the  war  against  the  Chatti,  in  Germany. 
After  his  return  to  Rome  he  lived  quietly  on  an  estate  on 
the  coast  of  Campania,  devoting  himself  to  scientific  and 
literary  pursuits.  Nerva,  on  his  accession,  a.d.  97,  called 
him  back  into  active  life,  raised  him  to  the  consulship,  and 
at  the  same  time  appointed  him  to  the  office  of  curator 
aquaruiriy  that  is,  the  superintendence  of  the  aqueducts 
supplying  the  city  of  Rome  with  water.  He  seems  to  have 
died  about  a.d.  103.  Frontinus  was  an  able  commander  in 
war,  and  an  excellent  man  of  business.  All  we  know  of  him 
shows  that  he  was  a  man  of  honour,  free  from  pretension 
and  arrogance.     He  never  flattered  Domitian. 

His  authorship  is  limited  to  technical  or  professional  sub- 
jects, about  which  he  had  acquired  much  practical  experience 
during  his  active  life.     He  wrote : — 

1.  De  Agrorum  Qualitate,  De  Controversiis,  De  LitnitibuSf 
etc.,  a  work  which  consisted  of  at  least  two  books,  and  treated 
of  the  measurement,  the  division,  etc.,  of  lands.  It  now 
exists  only  in  a  very  mutilated  form.* 

2.  Be  Be  Milltari  Romarwrum^  in  which  he  explained  the 
principles  of  military  tactics  and  military  afiairs  in  general. 
The  work  is  now  lost,  but  we  may  regard  the  treatise  of 
Vegetius  De  Re  Militari  as  a  kind  of  epitome  of  it. 

3.  Strategematicon  lihri  IV.,  is  a  collection  of  various 
military  stratagems.  The  stories  are  not  always  quite  correct; 
but  they  are  nevei-theless  valuable,  on  account  of  much  in- 
teresting information  not  to  be  found  elsewhere.  This  work 
also  has  come  down  to  us  with  many  interpolations  made  by 
others,  whence  some  critics  have  been  led  to  doubt  the 
genuineness  of  the  whole.  The  fourth  book  is  properly  only 
an  appendix,  containing  acts  and  expressions  referring  to 
military  affliirs.  This  book,  with  its  boastful  rhetorical 
beginning,  is  very  unlike  the  simple  style  of  Frontinus;  and, 
as  it  contains  nothing  that  had  not  already  been  stated  in 
the  three  preceding  books,  or  is  not  to  be  found  in  other 

*  The  most  correct  edition  is  that  in  C.  Lachmann's  Gromatici, 
Vol  L,  p.  1,  foil. 


/ 


A.D.  14-600.] 


.SMILIUS   ASPER. 


16; 


>< 


extant  works,  it  is  generally  considered  to  be  an  addition 
m^e  by  some  compiler  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  century 
"         .   •;.      •  ^?'"*  f '•^^   ^o„ia!,   in  one  book-,  was  probably 

■  ^-''•Zvr'?-YK^^'  '^"*,''°'  P"''"*^^  «»  after  the&Tf 
^  -l^^rva,  which  happened  a.d.  1 1 7.    This  work  treats  of  everv 
-       thin^  connected  with  the  planning,  building,  and  ketpS 

s„tiLhit:ctr"^"'''  """"'■'''"'^^  ''^  *""  ^'^*-/°f 

148.  Among  the  many  grammarians  of  the  age  of  Domitian 
we  may  mention  ^milius  A sper,  ^ho  wrotS  an  excellent 
commentary  on  Vergil,  which  is  often  mentioned,  and  ako 
commentaries  on  Terence  and  Sallust. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  history  was  almost 

hadlf^vT  V^"r/'^?'^*^°'^'  hence  J«fe»,  H^Ucue 
had  to  lay  down  his  life,  because  he  had  written  laudatory 
b  ographies  of  Thrasea  P^tus  and  Helyidius  Priscus.   OtheS^ 

P^SdZslotphil^iT^'^"^'^  *"  '^^''  '^^^""  '''' 

Si  I^TiN  Literature  dcring  thb  Sr^nvpCEyTURY. 

(From  the  Accession  op  Nerva,  a.d.  96,  to  ti^^A^^SI^ 

OF  Caracalia,  a.d.  211). 
149.  A  new  life  began  with  the  accession  of  Nerva,  in  a  d 
96,  and  men  whose  mouths  had  been  sealed  during  the  reim 
of  Domitian  now  gave  vent  to  their  feelings  of  anger  aid 
indignation.  Nerya  himself,  whose  father  Ld  grandfather 
had  been  distinguished  jurists,  had  some  literar/tasterbut 
.  his  reign  was  too  short  to  produce  any  marked  effect  and 
hi^  successor  Trajan  (a.d.  98-117)  was  too  much  c^upS 

tTre  Tt  r*^  t*'/™*  any  great  influence  upon  liteni- 
ture  Under  him  and  his  successors  we  cannot  but  be  struck 
by  the  unfortunate  consequences  of  the  despotic  proceedings 
of  the  rulei-s  ot  the  first  centuiy.     The  age  seems  to  hale 

doro^Levd'H™"  oltheStrategematica  is  still  that  of  F.  Ouden- 


164 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


I 


A.t).  14-600.] 


D.   JtJNltrS  JUVENALIS. 


165 


lost  the  power  of  producing  anything  independent  or  original, 
and  most  writers  showed  their  want  of  taste  by  adopting  a 
style  which  consisted  of  a  jumbling  together  of  all  kinds  of 
styles,  and  by  hunting  after  what  was  rare,  archaic,  and  far 
fetched.  Such  was  the  case,  especially  under  Hadrian,  when 
a  pedant  like  Fronto  became  the  leading  spirit  in  litemture. 
Although  most  writers  looked  to  the  past  for  models,  they 
were  unable  to  comprehond  or  grasp  its  spirit,  and  to  make 
the  right  use  of  it.  Learning  and  erudition  became  as  com- 
mon and  as  fashionable  as  verse-making  had  been  under 
Domitian;  and  to  make  the  acquisition  of  this  superficial 
kind  of  learning  easy,  abridgements  and  ejHtomes  of  the 
earlier  works  were  drawn  up  for  those  who  had  no  time  or 
inclination  for  the  study  of  the  great  works  of  their  ancestors. 
Oratory  degenerated  more  and  more  into  declamatory  dis- 
plays or  show  speeches,  which  were  the  fashion  in  all  parts 
of  the  empire,  and  were  delivered  and  published  both  in 
Greek  and  in  Latin.  The  practical  sciences  of  medicine  and 
law  alone  continued  to  be  cultivated  with  earnestness  and 
brilliant  success,  and  the  writings  in  these  departments  are 
free  from  the  stylistic  faults  of  the  times.  Poetry  died  out 
almost  entirely.  The  ancient  religion  had  indeed  sunk  more 
and  more  in  popular  estimation;  but  superstition  and  the 
love  of  the  marvellous  were  nevertheless  on  the  increase,  and 
offered  temptation  to  swindlers  and  miracle-mongei^  of  every 
description.  Such  circumstances  paved  the  way  for  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity,  which  had  already  taken  root  in 
the  Greek-speaking  parts  of  the  empire,  and  now  also  began 
to  attract  attention  in  the  Latin  or  western  portions.  Its 
doctrines  of  divine  mercy  and  of  a  future  life  of  bliss  and 
happiness  were  particularly  comforting  to  the  poor  and  the 
oppressed,  and  filled  them  with  an  enthusiasm  that  feared 
neither  death  nor  torture.  The  same  spirit  soon  also  seized 
the  educated  classes,  and  the  grand  idea  of  one  God,  the 
creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  could  not  fail  to  exercise  upon 
them  a  most  powerful  influence,  as  they  had  already  renounced 
the  ideas  of  polytheism  as  imsatisfactory.  A  fresh  stimulus 
was  thus  given  to  intellectual  life :  for  those  still  clinging  to 
their  ancient  religion  either  opposed  the  new  one  with  all 
their  might,  or  endeavoured  to  show  that  it  taught  nothing 


which  was  not  already  thought  or  implied  in  the  religion  of 
their  ancestors,  while  the  advocates  of  Christianity  made 
every  effort  and  every  sacrifice  to  ensure  its  propagation. 
The  Latin  language  also  underwent  considerable  changes, 
especially  in  the  province  of  Africa,  where  what  is  called 
the  "African  Latinity"  is  represented  by  several  important 
writers. 

^  150.  By  far  the  most  distinguished  among  the  poets  of  the 
time  of  Trajan  is  the  satirist  D.  Junius  Juvenalis.  There 
are  no  fewer  than  seven  brief  biographies  of  Juvenal  which 
are  assigned  to  as  many  ancient  grammarians,  and  yet  we 
know  very  little  of  his  life  beyond  what  can  be  gleaned  from 
his  own  satires.  He  must  have  been  born  about  a.d.  54, 
probably  at  Arpinum,  in  Latium,  and  was  the  son  of  a  liber- 
tinus,  who  seems  to  have  owned  considerable  property.  He 
received  the  ordinary  education  of  a  Roman  boy,  and  having 
devoted  himself  to  rhetoric  as  a  youth  he  practised  it  as  a 
man  for  his  own  amusement  till  about  a.d.  94,  about  which 
time  he  seems  to  have  offended  Domitian,  and  to  have  been 
sent  into  Egypt  to  undertake  some  military  command.  Soon 
after  the  murder  of  Domitian  he  appears  to  have  been 
allowed  to  return  to  Rome,  being  then  about  40  years  of 
age.  He  did  not  write,  or  at  least  recite,  any  of  his  satires, 
till  after  the  death  of  Domitian.  This  occupation  he  con- 
tinued under  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  The  time  of  his  death  is 
unknown,  though  it  seems  probable  that  he  survived  the 
accession  of  Antoninus  Pius  (a.d.  138),  and  that  he  died 
at  the  advanced  age  of  about  80.  From  his  own  poems 
we  learn  that  he  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Statins,  and  knew 
Quintilian. 

The  number  of  Juvenal's  satires  is  sixteen,  distributed 
among  five  books.  The  order  in  which  they  are  usually 
printed  seems  to  be  the  same  as  that  in  which  they  were 
written.  The  last  two  are  of  a  moralising  character.  They  do 
not  possess  the  vigour  and  freshness  of  the  others,  and  make 
the  impression  of  being  the  productions  of  an  old  man.  The 
effects  of  his  rhetorical  occupations  during  the  first  half  of 
his  life  are  visible  in  his  poetry.  What  induced  him  to 
write  satii-es  was,  as  he  himself  intimates,  his  indignation  at 
the  vices  and  atrocities  he  had  witnessed  in  the  time  of 


166  HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

Domitian,  which  had  filled  his  mind,  while  he  wa«  obliged 
to  be  silent,  with  anger  and  scorn.      To  these  feelings  he 
gives  vent  under  more  favourable  circumstances,  and  he  does 
so  with  a  sense  of  pleasure  and  satisfaction,  being  evidently 
without  faith  in  man  and  without  hope  for  him.     The  sub- 
jects of  his  satires  belong  to  the  time  in  which  he  wrote, 
but  prudence  told  him  to  speak  at  the  present  generation 
by  speaking  of  the  past,  that  is,  he  writes  under  Trajan  as 
if  he  lived  under  Nero  and  Domitian.      He  intentionally 
selected  subjects  which  presented  the  darkest  side  of  the 
social  and  political  life  of  the  time,  which  he  exposes  and 
lashes  without  mercy.     He  shows  a  most  extensive  know- 
ledge of  the  world  and  of  human  nature,  or  rather  of  the 
worst  side  of  it.      He  is  not  a  man  of  refined  taste,  his 
mmd  IS  powerful,  but  not  pure.      Occasionally  we  meet, 
indeed,  with  a  charming  picture  of  private  life,  but  on  the 
whole  he  gives  us  only  the  coarse  reality  without  an   aton- 
ing antidote.     He  knows  the  faults  and  vices  of  his  time, 
and  seems  almost  to  revel  in  painting  them.      In  regard 
to   the  form  and  stnicture  of  his   poetry,  Juvenal  is  cer- 
tainly not  an  artistic  poet  of  a  high  order.      His  views 
and  thoughts,  as  they  are  accidentally  called  forth,  so  they 
are  accidentally  stnmg  together,  without  internal  or  natural 
connection.     The  numerous  allusions  to  occurrences  of  the 
time  often  render  it  difficult  to  understand  the  meaning  and 
drift  of  his  satires,  or  of  passages  in  them;  hence  commen- 
taries or  scholia  were  written  upon  them  by  grammarians  at 
an  early  time,  and  some  of  them  are  still  extant.* 

The  mania  of  writing  verses  continued  during  the  reign 
of  Trajan,  as  we  must  infer  from  the  number  of  persons 
mentioned  by  the  younger  Pliny  as  having  written  and 
published  poems.  Some  attempted  epic  and  othei-s  ele^nac 
poetry,  while  others  again  tried  their  skill  in  comedy,  but 
none  of  their  productions  has  survived  to  our  time. 

151.  The  foremost  place  among  the  prose  writers  of  the 
time  of  Nerva  and  Trajan  is  due  to  Cornelius  Tacitus,  born 

■D  *  "^^lo.^^^*  modern  editions  of  Juvenal  are  those  of  C.  F.  Heinrich: 
Bonn,  1839,  m  2  vols.;  of  0.  Jahn:  Berlin,  1851,  both  of  which  edi- 
tions  contain  the  ancient  scholia;  and  of  A.  J.  Macleane  (together 
With  the  satires  of  Persius):  London,  1857 


A.n.  14-600.1 


CORNELIUS  TACITUS. 


167 


4*,- 


about  A.D.  54  (whether  at  Interamna  or  at  Rome  is  uncertain) ; 
he  was  probably  the  son  of  Cornelius  Tacitus,  a  Roman  eques, 
who  was  entrusted  with  the  financial  afiairs  of  Belgium. 
Tacitus,  like  Juvenal,  had  to  spend  the  best  part  of  his  life, 
under  Domitian,  in  forced  silence.  In  a.d.  78  he  married 
the  daughter  of  Agricola;  and  as  in  the  same  year  the  latter 
proceeded  to  Britain,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  Tacitus  may  have 
accompanied  him,  for  in  some  parts  of  the  life  of  Agricola  he 
shows  a  knowledge  of  the  country,  which  could  scarcely  have 
been  acquired  without  seeing  it.  Some  dignity  was  conferred 
upon  him  by  Yespasian,  which  was  increased  by  Titus;  this 
must  have  been  about  a.d.  80,  but  in  what  this  increase  con- 
sisted can  only  be  conjectured,  and  may  have  been  the  sedile- 
ship  or  the  tribunate  of  the  plebs.  In  a.d.  88,  when  the 
secular  games  were  celebrated  at  Rome,  Tacitus  was  prretor, 
and  invested  with  the  priestly  office  of  quindecimvir,  and  in 
the  year  after  this  he  and  his  wife  seem  to  have  left  Rome, 
perhaps  to  ^et  out  of  the  way  of  the  jealous  despot  Domitian. 
After  the  death  of  Agricola,  in  a.d.  93,  he  seems  to  have 
returned  to  Rome,  as  he  blames  himself  for  being,  to  some 
extent,  responsible  for  the  death  of  the  younger  Helvidius. 
In  A.D.  97,  the  first  year  of  Nerva's  reign,  Tacitu^  was  raised 
to  the  consulship,  in  the  place  of  Yerginius  Rufus  who  had 
died,  and  on  whom  he  delivered  a  most  eloquent  funeral 
oration.  The  only  other  event  of  his  life  we  know  of  is  that, 
in  A.D.  100,  he  and  Pliny  conducted  the  accusation  against 
]Marius  Priscus.  The  time  of  his  death  is  uncertain,  but  his 
life  seems  to  have  extended  into  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  so 
that  his  death  must  have  taken  place  about  a.d.  120.  Ho 
had  intended,  after  the  completion  of  his  Annates,  to  write 
the  histoiy  of  Augustus  and  his  time,  but  the  plan  Avas 
probably  frustrated  by  his  death. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Tacitus,  like  many  others,  had 
become  embittered  by  the  necessity  of  suppressing  his  indig- 
nation at  the  proceedings  he  had  witnessed  during  the  reign 
of  Domitian.  Like  other  thoughtful  men  he  was,  indeed, 
convinced  that  the  monarchy  was  the  only  possible  form  of 
government  for  the  Romans  at  the  time;  but  in  theory  and 
in  his  heart  he  was  attached  to  an  aristocratic  republic,  and 
he  resigned  himself  to  what  could  not  be  avoided,  differing 


168  HISTORY   OP   LATIN  LITERATURE.  [l>fiRlOD  V, 

in  this  respect  from  some  philosophers  who  loudly  deplored 
the  loss  of  liberty,  and  paid  for  their  presumption  with  their 
lives.     As  an  historian,  his  first  object  always  is  to  ascertain 
the  facts  from  the  best  authorities,  exercising  his  critical 
judgment  in  their  selection,  and  whatever  the  result  is  he 
expresses  without  reserv^e,  though  not  without  occasionally 
giving  a  hint  as  to  his  own  subjective  opinion.     His  mode 
of  writing  history  may  be  described  as  pragmatical,  that  is, 
he  conscientiously  traces  events  to  their  causes,  whether  they 
lie  in  the  circumstances  of  the  time  or  in  the  character  of 
men,  and  it  is  especially  in  the  psychological  analysis  of  the 
latter  that  Tacitus  is  unequalled.     The  tone  which  pervades 
his  historical  compositions  is  serious,  sad,  and  sometimes 
bitter;  but  he  always  avoids  rhetorical  and  passionate  exag- 
geration as  unbecoming  the  dignity  of  an  historian.     During 
the  first  period  of  his  authorship  he  appears  to  have  been 
desirous  to  follow  the  style  of  his  classical  predecessora ;  but 
after  a  time  he  made  up  his  mind  to  adopt  that  of  his  own 
age  with  its  tinge  of  poetical  colouring  and  its  antithetical 
pomtedness,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  its  epigrammatical 
conciseness,   novelty,   and  boldness,  goes  even  beyond  the 
general  character  of  the  style  common  in  his  day,  and  by  its 
brevity  and  difficulties  he  compels  his  readers  to  think  and 
to  ponder.     The  chief  cause  of  the  difiiculties  of  Tacitus  lies 
in  his  brevity:  for  he  never  uses  more  words  than  are  abso- 
lutely necessary,  and  he  thus  forms  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
copious  style  of  Livy  and  Cicero.     As  to  his  religious  views, 
tlie  hoiTors  which  he  had  witnessed,  and  the  impunity  with 
which  the  wicked  trampled  on  the  good  and  innocent,  often 
throws  him  into  a  state  of  despondency,  and  into  a  belief 
that  the  gods  are  either  indifl'erent  to  the  affairs  of  men,  or 
are  angiy  with  them,  and  that  therefore  the  worid  is  left  to 
fate,  or  to  chance.     He  does  not  appear  to  have  embraced 
any  particular  system  of  philosophy,  but  in  his  ethical  views 
he  shows  most  sympathy  with  the  Stoics. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  writings  of  Tacitus,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  were  written  : — 

1.  Dialogus  de  Oratoribns.—Thk  work  was  composed  in 
the  reign  of  Titus,  or  in  the  beginning  of  that  of  Domitian, 
and  IS  the  first-fruit  of  his  historical  studies.     In  it  Tacitus 


i 


A.1).  14-600.] 


CORNELIUS   TACITUS. 


169 


compares  the  state  of  oratory  in  his  own  time  with  that  of 
earlier  days,  and  points  out  the  causes  of  its  decline  since  the 
establishment  of  the  empire.  The  dialogue  is  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  speakers,  without  interruption, 
explain  their  views  in  long  speeches;  the  speakers  are  literary 
celebrities  of  the  time  of  Vespasian.  The  work  contains  a 
va^t  deal  of  information  and  excellent  criticisms  of  men  and 
things.  Tacitus  is  throughout  an  admirer  of  the  good  old 
times,  and  of  such  men  as  Gracchus  and  Cato,  though  he  is 
well  aware  that  not  everything  ancient  is  also  good.  The 
style  of  the  dialogue  is  more  easy  and  fluent  than  in  his 
later  writings ;  nor  is  there,  as  yet,  any  trace  of  the  bitterness 
which  we  find  in  his  gi'eat  historical  works.* 

2.  De  vita  et  moribus  Agricolce  liber  was  written  in  the 
lifetime  of  JSTerya,  after  his  adoption  of  Trajan,  which  occurred 
in  A.D.  97.  Tacitus  himself  describes  this  biography  as  the  pre- 
cursor of  larger  historical  works,  which  were  to  contain  the 
records  of  former  servitude  and  a  testimony  of  present 
blessings.  The  somewhat  rhetorical  character  of  the  work 
reminds  us  of  the  laiidationes  funebres.  The  author's  later 
style  is  not  yet  completely  developed;  but  the  whole  is 
written  in  a  kindly  spirit  and  with  warm  affection,  f 

3.  De  origine,  situ,  moribus  ac  j)02mlis  Germanorum, 
sometimes  called  simply  Germania,  is  an  ethnographical 
treatise  on  Germany  and  the  Germans,  which  Tacitus  was 
induced  to  compose  on  account  of  the  great  interest  which 
at  that  time  Germany  had  for  the  Romans.  He  had  pro- 
bably seen  parts  of  Germany  at  the  time  when  his  father 
was  officially  engaged  in  Belgium.  He  contrasts  the  rude 
and  simple  manners  of  the  Germans  with  the  luxury  and 
rotten  social  condition  of  the  Romans;  but  although  he 
knows  the  latter  in  all  its  hideousness  he  is  at  heart  a 
Roman,  and  neither  blind  to  the  good  qualities  of  his  country- 
men nor  to  the  failings  of  the  Germans.  The  whole  is 
written,  like  the  Agricola,  in  a  kindly  spirit,  sometimes  verg- 
ing on  sentimentality.     Among  his  written  authorities  he 

*  Good  separate  editions  of  this  dialogue  are  those  of  Fr.  Ritter: 
Bonn,^  1836;  and  of  E.  Dronke:  Coblenz,  1828. 

t  The  best  separate  editions  of  the  Agricola  are  those  of  C.  F. 
Wex:  Braunschweig,  1858;  and  of  Fr.  Kritz:  Berlin,  1865. 


/ 


170 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


mentions  only  Caesar,  though  he  must  have  used   others 

also.* 

4.  Ilistorice. — This  work  comprised,  in  fourteen  books,  the 
history  of  the  reigns  of  Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,  Vespasian, 
Titus,  and  Domitian,  i.e.,  the  histoiy  of  Rome  from  A.D.  69  to 
96,  or  the  history  of  Tacitus'  own  time.  At  an  advanced  age  he 
intended  to  add  the  history  of  Nerva,  but  was  prevented  by 
death.  Of  the  original  fourteen  books  we  now  possess  only 
the  first  four  and  a  portion  of  the  fifth,  and  these  parts  com- 
prise only  the  history  of  the  years  69  and  70.  The  work 
must  have  been  published  after  the  death  of  Nerva.  f 

5.  Annales,  ov  Ab  excessu  divi  Augnsti. — After  finishing 
the  Ilistorice,  Tacitus  went  back  and  undertook  to  write  the 
history  of  Rome  from  the  death  of  Augustus  till  he  reached 
the  beginning  of  the  Ilistorice,  i.e.,  it  comprised  the  history 
of  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero,  so  that  the  two 
works  together  formed  a  continuous  history  from  the  death 
of  Augustus  to  that  of  Domitian.  This  work  was  written 
in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  and  must  have  been  published  between 
A.D.  115  and  117.  It  consisted  of  sixteen  books,  but  a  con- 
siderable part  of  it  is  lost.  We  now  possess  only  the  first 
four  books,  with  parts  of  the  fifth  and  sixth,  and  the  last  books 
from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth;  but  of  the  eleventh  the 
beginning  is  wanting,  and  of  the  sixteenth  the  end.  The 
whole  of  the  reign  of  Caligula,  and  the  beginning  of  that  of 
Claudius,  and  the  last  two  years  of  Nero,  are  thus  lost.  The 
title  Annales  probably  intimates  that  the  author  adheres  more 
strictly  to  the  chronological  order  of  events  than  he  did  in 

the  HistoHce.X 

152.  Next  to  Tacitus  the  most  important  writer  of  the 
time  of  Trajan  is  C.  Plinius  CsBCilius  Secundus,  commonly 
called  Pliny  the  younger;  he  was  the  son  of  L.  Cseeilius, 
who  had  married  a  sister  of  the  elder  Pliny,  and  was  born 
at  Como  in  a.d.  62.     He  lost  his  father  at  an  early  age,  but 

*  Good  separat.e  editions  of  this  treatise  are  those  of  Ft.  Kritz: 
Berlin,  1869;  and  R.  G.  Latham:  London,  1851. 

t  A  good  separate  edition  is  that  of  Th.  Kiessling:  Leipzig,  1840. 

X  The  Annales  have  been  edited  separately  by  Th.  Kiessling:  Leip- 
zig, 1829;  and  byNipperdey:  Berlin,  1864.  The  best  modern  editions 
of  all  the  works  of  Tacitus  are  those  of  I.  Bekker:  Leipzig,  1831,  in 
2  vols. ;  and  by  Fr.  Bitter:  Cambridge,  1848,  4  vols. 


i 


fe 


A.D.  14-600.]      C.   PLINItJS  C^CILIUS  SECtJNDUS. 


171 


was  taken  care  of^by  his  uncle,  Pliny,  and  his  guardian, 
Verginius  Rufus,  and  was  carefully  educated  at  Rome,  where, 
among  others,  he  received  instruction  from  Quintilian.     In 
his  nineteenth  year  he  began  his  active  career  as  a  pleader 
in  the  law  courts ;  and  he  himself  tells  us  of  many  speeches 
which  he  delivered  there,  and  which  he  afterwards  revised 
and  published.     At  a  later  time  we  find  him  serving  as  a 
military   tribune   in    Syria,   where   he    became   acquainted 
with  the  philosophers  Euphrates  and  Artemidorus.     On  his 
return  to  Rome  he  obtained  successively  the  offices  of  quses- 
tor  Csesaris,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  and  pr^tor;  the  last  of 
which  he  held  when  he  was  only  thirty  years  old.     In  order 
to  avoid  coming  into  conflict  with  the  despotic  Domitian  he 
withdrew  into  private  life,  from  which  he  did  not  emerge 
until  after  the  accession  of  Nerva,  under  whom  he  obtained 
the  prsefectura  gerarii,  and,  in  a.d.  100,  the  rank  of  a  consular. 
On  the  occasion  of  obtaining  this  last  distinction  he  delivered 
the  speech  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  Panegyricus."     Ten 
or  eleven  years  later  he  was  entrusted  with  the  administra- 
tion of  the  province  of  Bithynia ;  and,  during  the  time  of  his 
stay  in  Asia,  he  kept  up  an  active  correspondence  with  the 
Emperor  Trajan.     The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown ;  but 
considering  that  he  was  a  man  of  a  feeble  constitution,  he  is 
not  likely  to  have  lived  to  an  advanced  age.     Whether  he 
died   in  his  province  or  soon  after  his  return  cannot  be 
decided,  though  his  death  must  have  occurred  about  a.d.  113. 
Pliny  was  connected  by  friendship  with  the  most  eminent 
men  of  his  time,  such  as  Quintilian,  Tacitus,  Silius  Italicus, 
Martial,  and  many  others.     He  was  a  man  of  a  most  gener- 
ous and  kind-hearted  disposition,  which  he  showed  especially 
toward  his  native  town  of  Como,  where  he  founded  a  library 
and  public  baths.     His  great  weakness  was  vanity,  although 
it  never  shows  itself  in  an  offensive  manner,  or  in  deprecia- 
tion of  others.     Taking  him  all  in  all  it  has  been  justly  said 
that  he  was  really  great  in  nothing,  but  small  in  many  things, 
though  he  always  aimed  at  what  was  good  and  noble. 

In  his  eariier  years  Pliny,  like  most  other  young  Romans, 
tried  his  hands  at  poetical  composition.  At  the  ago  of  four- 
teen he  wrote  a  tragedy,  and  oii  his  return  from  Syria,  when 
detained  in  the  island  of  Icaria,  he  wrote  an  elegy  upon  the 


172 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  T. 


I 


island;  in  fact,  he  never  seems  to  have  given  up  poetical 
composition  altogether.  He  published  sixteen  speeches  be- 
longing to  the  time  of  his  acting  as  a  pleader,  but  only  a 
few  fragments  of  them  have  come  down  to  us,  which  are 
collected  in  Meyer's  Oral.  Eom.  Fragm.j  p.  598,  foil.  Only 
one  speech,  the  Panegyricvs,  has  reached  our  time ;  it  was 
addressed  to  Trajan,  whom  he  thanked  for  the  honour  of  the 
consulship.  In  it  he  gives  a  description  of  the  emperor's 
government,  which  is  of  considerable  historical  importance, 
but  very  wearisome  on  account  of  the  bombastic  style  and  the 
extravagant  praise  he  lavishes  upon  the  sovereign. 

After  the  accession  of  Nerva,  Pliny  wrote  a  series  of  letters 
with  the  avowed  intention  of  their  being  published.  These 
letters  have  come  down  to  us  in  nine  books,  which  seem  to 
have  been  published  separately  as  they  were  written,  from 
A. D.  97  to  109.  To  this  collection  was  afterwards  added  a 
tenth  book,  containing  his  coiTespondence  with  the  Emperor 
Trajan  during  his  governorship  of  Bithynia.  All  these  letters 
treat  of  a  multitude  of  subjects,  and  place  their  author  before 
us  in  every  variety  of  circumstances.  He  is  quite  frank  and 
open,  but  is  always  trying  to  place  himself  in  the  most 
favourable  light,  a  weakness  which  may  easily  be  forgiven, 
as  he  is  always  aiming  at  what  is  really  good  and  honourable. 
The  style  of  his  letters,  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  imitate 
Cicero,  is  smooth  and  polished ;  but  they  want  the  intellect 
and  genius  of  Cicero.  At  one  time  Pliny  seems  to  have 
contemplated  writing  historical  works ;  but  we  do  not  know 
that  he  composed  anything  else  than  two  rhetorical  bio- 
graphies of  Helvidius  Prise  us  and  Vestricius  Cottius,  which 
are  now  lost.  It  may  be  that  the  brilliant  success  of  Tacitus 
as  an  historian  deterred  him  from  entering  into  competition 
with  him.* 

153.  The  letters  of  Pliny  make  us  acquainted  with  the 
names  of  a  great  many  men  who  distinguished  themselves  at 
the  time  as  orators,  both  in  the  senate  and  in  the  courts  of 

*  A  good  edition  of  Pliny's  Panegyricus  was  published  by  J.  M. 
Gesner :  Gottingen,  1749.  Good  editions  of  the  letters  are  those  of 
Veenhusius:  Leyden,  1669;  and  of  J,  Cortius  and  P.  D.  Longolius: 
Amsterdam,  1734.  The  best  edition  of  all  the  extant  works  of 
Pliny  is  that  of  H.  Keil:  Leipzig,  1870. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


HADRIAN. 


17S 


law,  and  some  of  whom  also  published  their  speeches.  The 
increased  activity  in  this  department,  and  the  decrease  of 
mere  declamatory  or  show  speeches,  is  a  sign  that  freedom 
was  raising  her  head  again.  One  of  the  most  eminent  rheto- 
rical orators  was  P.  Annius  FloruSy  of  whose  speech  Vergilius, 
orator  an  poetay  an  interesting  fragment  still  exists.  He 
also  wrote  poetry  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  and  may  be  the 
same  Florus  under  whose  name  we  have  twenty-six  trochaic 
tetrameters  and  five  hexameter  lines  on  roses  (see  A.  Riese, 
Anthol.  Lat.,  p.  168,  foil.). 

Jurisprudence  is  represented  in  Trajan's  time  by  a  great 
number  of  eminent  men  who  enlarged  the  science  of  law  by 
works  on  a  variety  of  legal  questions,  which  became  standard 
books,  and  are  often  referred  to  in  the  Digest. 

Among  the  grammarians  of  the  time  we  must  mention 
Flavins  Caper,  two  of  whose  treatises,  De  orthographia  and 
De  verbis  duhiis,  are  still  extant,  though  they  are  apparently 
only  meagre  abridgments  of  the  original  works.  Velius 
LonguSy  who  also  wrote  a  work,  De  orthographia,  which  is 
still  extant,  and  a  commentary  on  Vergil.  These  grammatical 
treatises  are  printed  in  the  collections  of  ancient  gram- 
marians. 

There  remain,  lastly,  some  technical  writers  belonging  to 
the  same  time,  as — 

1.  Hyginus,  who  wrote  a  comprehensive  work  on  land 
surveying,  of  which  we  still  possess  some  remains,  viz.,  De 
munitionibus,  de  limitibus  constitvsndisy  of  which  the  work 
of  Frontinus  seems  to  have  formed  the  basis. 

2.  BalbuSy  who  wrote  an  exposition  of  geometrical  forms 
(Expositio  et  ratio  omnium  formarum).  This  was  a  manual 
for  practical  land  surveyors,  mainly  based  on  Euclid  and 
Heron. 

3.  Siculus  Flaccus,  who  wrote  a  work,  De  conditionibm 
agrorum,  which  is  still  extant  in  a  good  and  complete  condi- 
tion. The  writer  limits  himself  to  the  consideration  of  the  lands 
in  Italy,  and  seems  to  have  written  his  work  after  the  death 
of  Domitian.  The  remains  of  this  and  other  writers  on  land 
surveying  are  collected  in  C.  Lachmann's  Gromatici. 

164.  The  Emperor  Hadrian,  who  reigned  from  A.  d.  117  to 
138,  was  himself  foud  of  every  kind  of  literature.    He  was  a 


I 


174  HISTORY  OP  LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  V. 

ready  speaker,  and  even  wrote  poetry,  both  in  Latin  and  in 
Greek ;  but,  \7ith  the  capriciousness  peculiar  to  his  character, 
he  on  the  one  hand  honoured  and  enriched  men  of  letters, 
while  on  the  other  he  laughed  at  them  and  despised  them] 
thinking  himself  superior  to  them  all.  His  tastes  were  in 
favour  of  the  literature  of  the  classical  period.  He  seems  to 
have  published  some  of  his  speeches,  or  at  least  to  have 
allowed  them  to  be  published  by  some  of  his  freedmen ;  and 
his  funeral  oration  on  his  mother-in-law  is  still  preserved  in 
an  inscription.  His  reign,  therefore,  was  not  without  some 
influence  upon  literature,  though  it  would  be  difficult  to  say 
whether  it  was  more  beneficial  or  more  injurious. 

During  the  whole  of  his  reign  we  do  not  hear  of  a  single 
poet  of  eminence.  Annianus  is  mentioned  as  the  author^f 
a  poem  called  Falisca,  on  the  pleasures  of  country  life,  and 
of  Fescennines.  A  few  men,  such  as  Annius  Florus,  L. 
j^hus  Venis,  Yoconius,  and  many  others,  like  the  emperor 
himself,  wrote  verses,  but  more  as  a  playful  amusement, 
without  any  higher  aim,  and  none  of  their  productions  have 
come  down  to  our  time. 

155.  The  most  important  prose  Avriter  in  the  reicm  of 
Hadrian  was  C.  Suetonius  Tranquillus,  of  whose  life  we 
know  very  little,  but  who  must  have  been  bom  shortly  before 
AD.  75.  He  came  forward  as  a  pleader  and  an  author  in 
the  reign  of  Trajan,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  friend  of  the 
younger  Pliny,  in  whose  letters  he  is  repeatedly  mentioned. 
In  a  letter,  written  about  a.d.  105,  Pliny  urges  him  at  length 
to  publish  his  books,  and  some  years  later  he  obtained  lor 
him  the  ju8  irium  liberorum  and  the  trtbuneship.  Hadrian 
afterwards  made  him  his  private  secretary;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  some  supposed  misconduct  towards  the  empress 
during  her  husband's  travels  he  was  dismissed.  After  this 
time  he  appears  to  have  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  lite- 
ra^  pursuits,  especially  to  the  history  of  the  Latin  literature 
and  language  :  for  his  taste  was  thoroughly  national,  and  he 
^ed  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Varro,  Santra,  Nepos,  and 
Hyginus.  He  was  the  author  of  many  works,  one  of  which 
only  has  come  down  to  us  complete,  while  most  of  them 
are  known  to  us  only  by  abridgments  and  extracts. 

1.  Deviria  iUmtrilms,  a  large  collection  of  lives  of  Roman 


A.D.  14  600.1        C.   SUETONIUS  TRANQUILLUS. 


175 


poets,  orators,  historians,  philosophers,  grammarians,  and 
rhetoricians,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Domitian.  Of  the  first  portion  of  this  extensive  literary 
history  we  possess  only  abridgments  which  were  made  by 
Diomedes  and  Hieronymus ;  but  of  the  part  devoted  to  the 
poets  we  still  have  the  lives  of  Terence,  Horace,  and  portions 
of  those  of  Vergil,  Persius,  and  Lucan.  There  is  also  a  frag- 
ment of  the  life  of  the  elder  Pliny.  The  part  treating  of 
grammarians  and  rhetoricians  is  more  complete,  though  still 
more  defective,  than  any  of  the  others.  What  great  loss  we 
have  sustained  in  this  work  may  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the 
lists  of  names  prefixed  to  the  seveml  sections. 

2.  Prata,  in  eight  books.  The  first  treated  de  anno  Boman- 
orum  and  all  its  sub-divisions,  another  treated  de  natiira 
rerum,  a  third  de  genere  vestium,  and  others  de  vitiis  corporum, 
verbornm  differentiae,  etc.  Some  parts  were  written  in  hexa- 
meter verse.     Of  this  work  also  we  possess  only  fragments. 

3.  De  regibuSy  in  three  books,  of  which  only  a  few  frag- 
ments are  extant. 

4.  Ludicra  historia,  partly  in  Latin  and  partly  in  Greek ; 
some  portions  of  it  were  likewise  written  in  verse. 

5.  De  rebus  variis. — The  extant  fragments  of  all  these 
works  have  been  collected  by  A.  Eeifierscheid,  in  his  work 
entitled  C.  Suetonii  Tranquilli  prceter  Ccesarum  libros  reli- 
quice:  Leipzig,  1860. 

6.  Vitm  Ccesarum,  in  eight  books,  one  of  the  principal  works 
of  Suetonius,  is  the  only  one  that  has  come  down  to  us  entire. 
It  is  dedicated  to  C.  Septicius  Clarus,  the  prsefectus  prsetorio 
(which  office  he  held  from  A.  D.  119  to  121),  so  that  the  work 
must  have  been  published  about  a.d.  120.  The  lives  of  the 
first  six  emperors,  from  J.  Caesar  to  Nero,  are  described  in 
as  many  books;  Otho,  Galba,  and  Vitellius,  occupy  the 
seventh  book ;  and  the  three  Flavian  emperors,  Vespasian, 
Titus,  and  Domitian,  the  eighth.  The  beginning  of  the  life 
of  Caesar  is  wanting.  In  drawing  up  this  work,  Suetonius 
availed  himself  of  the  best  authorities,  and  used  them  with 
care  and  judgment ;  but  he  has  neglected  the  chronology  of 
events,  and  shows  little  insight  into  human  nature  and  into 
political  matters.  The  lives  are  full  of  anecdotes,  in  the 
selection  of  which  he  does  not  always  show  a  refined  taste; 


176 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


but  he  nowhere  perverts  or  suppresses  the  truth,  neither  does 
he  flatter  Domitian  or  any  other  of  the  contemptible  tyrants. 
Commodus  ordered  any  one  that  had  read  Suetonius'  life 
of  Caligula  to  be  thrown  to  the  wild  beasts.  Valuable  as 
the  lives  are  in  an  historical  point  of  view,  they  are  not 
works  of  art,  and  cannot  be  compared  to  Tacitus'  life  of 
Agricola.* 

156.  Julius  Florus,  is  the  author  of  a  brief  history  of  Rome, 
in  two  books,  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  peace  with 
the  Parthians  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Of  his  personal 
history  nothing  is  known ;  and  while  some  have  regarded 
him  as  a  contemporary  of  Augustus,  others,  with  far  more 
probability,  place  him  in  the  time  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian. 
The  work  is,  on  the  whole,  an  epitome  of  Livy ;  but  the 
author  has  also  consulted  Csesar,  Sallust,  and  Lucan.  The 
character  of  the  work  may  be  described  as  a  panegyric  on 
the  Roman  people,  the  object  of  the  author  being  not  so 
much  to  relate  the  wars  of  the  Romans  as  to  extol  their 
virtues.  Such  a  scheme  could  not  be  carried  out  without 
misrepresenting  history;  and,  besides  this,  the  work  is  full  of 
errors  and  misunderstandings.  The  style  is  full  of  rhetorical 
artifices  of  every  kind,  and  in  his  rhetorical  fashion  he  laments 
the  increasing  degeneracy  of  the  Romans,  and  attributes 
almost  all  their  misfortunes  to  the  pernicious  influence  of 
the  tribunes  of  the  plebs — a  proof  how  little  he  understood 
the  history  of  his  own  country,  f 

^  157.  The  most  distinguished  among  the  jurists  of  Hadrian's 
time  was  Salvius  Julianus,  who,  by  command  of  the  em- 
peror, collected  and  arranged  the  edicts  of  the  praetors  of  the 
republican  period.  He  was  a  native  of  Adrumetum  in 
Africa,  and  was  entrusted  with  several  high  offices  of  state. 
He  wrote  an  edictum  perpetuum  and  Digesta  in  ninety  books, 
many  parts  of  which  were  afterwards  incorporated  in  the 
Digesta  of  Justinian.  Besides  these  he  composed  several 
other  legal  works,  which  are  often  referred  to  by  later  jurists. 

♦  A  good  edition  of  Suetonius  is  that  of  I.  A.  Ernesti,  re-edited  by 
F.  A.  Wolf:  Leipzig,  1802,  in  4  vols.  A  good  text  is  that  edited 
by  C.  L.  Roth,  in  Teubner's  collection,  1858. 

t  The  best  critical  edition  is  that  of  O.  Jahn:  Leipzig,  1856;  and 
a  good  text  is  that  edited  by  C.  Halm  in  Teubner's  collection. 


.n.  14-600.] 


CiELIUS  AURELIANUS. 


177 


Other  distinguished  lawyers  of  the  same  period  are  Ahurnius 
Valens,  who  wrote  Actiones,  in  at  least  seven  books,  and  libH 
Jideicommissorum,  likewise  in  at  least  seven  books.  Sextus 
Pomponius  published  epistles,  a  history  of  the  Roman  law, 
and  many  other  legal  treatises  of  great  value,  which  are 
often  quoted  in  the  Digesta. 

158.  Most  of  the  rhetoricians  of  Hadrian's  time  wrote  in 
Greek;  among  those  who  wrote  in  Latin  we  may  mention 
the  Spaniard  Antonius  Julianus,  who,  like  T.  Castricius,  is 
mentioned  among  the  teachers  of  Gellius,  and  Calpurnius 
Flaccus,  of  whom  fifty-one  declamations  are  still  extant,  but 
of  whom  nothing  further  is  known.  These  declamations  are 
published  in  P.  Burmann's  Metores  Minores  :  Levden 
1720.  ^       ' 

The  most  celebrated  grammarian  of  this  time  is  Q,  Terentius 
Scaurus,  who  wrote  a  Latin  grammar,  a  treatise  on  poetry 
(poetica),  and  commentaries  on  Plautus  and  Vergil.  These 
works  are  now  lost,  but  are  frequently  referred  to  by  the 
later  grammarians,  Charisius  and  Diomedes.  Flaccus  was 
an  advocate  of  the  style  and  language  of  Cicero.  The  little 
work  De  Orthographia,  which  is  still  extant,  and  bears  his 
name,  is  at  best  only  an  abridgment  of  a  real  work  of  Scaurus. 

The  philosophers  of  the  time  of  Hadrian,  when  they  wrote 
at  all,  wrote  in  Greek. 

A  physician  of  the  name  of  Ccelius  Aurelianus,  a  native  of 
Sicca,  in  ISTumidia,  wrote  in  Latin  two  treatises,  one  on  acute 
diseases,  m  three  books,  and  the  other  on  chronic  diseases, 
in  five  books.  Both  works  are  still  extant,  and  are  printed 
in  the  different  collections  of  the  Medici  Veteres.  Other 
works  by  the  same  author  are  lost.  The  style  of  his  works 
IS  simple,  but  in  the  description  of  diseases  it  becomes  lively 
and  animated,  though  the  language  has  the  peculiarities  of 
the  African  Latinity. 

159.  The  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  from  a.d.  138  to  161 
was  eminently  favourable  to  literature,  but  the  Romans  seeni 
to  have  lost  all  creative  power.  Their  taste  had  so  much  de- 
generated that  the  pedantic  affectations  of  a  man  like  Fronto 
for  a  long  time  became  the  oracle  of  what  true  oratory  should 
be  and  that  he  even  became  the  founder  of  a  school  which 
called  Itself  after  him  the  school  of  Fronto  {Frontoniani). 


178 


HISTORY  OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


Jurisprudence  and  gi^ammatical  literature  alone  continued  to 
flourish. 

M.  Cornelius  Fronto,  generally  described  by  writera  of 
the  next  centuries  as  the  orator,  and  regarded  by  his  con- 
temporaries as  second  only  to  Cicero,  was  a  native  of  Cirta, 
in  Africa,  and  born  about  a.d.  90.  After  having  received 
his  education  there,  or  perhaps  at  Alexandria,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  soon  created  a  great  sensation  as  a  pleader 
in  the  courts  of  justice,  as  early  as  the  time  of  Hadrian, 
who  had  a  very  high  opinion  of  his  abilities.  Antoninus 
Pius  entertained  the  same  respect  for  him,  and  not  only 
raised  him  to  the  consulship,  in  a.d.  143,  but  entrusted  to 
him  the  education  of  M.  Aurelius  and  L.  Verus,  for  he  had 
in  the  meantime  gained  the  highest  reputation  as  a  teacher 
of  oratory.  The  affection  and  attachment  whicli  was  thus 
formed  between  Fronto  and  his  princely  pupils  lasted  to  the 
end  of  their  lives.  After  he  had  held  the  consulship  it  was 
intended  that  he  should  undertake  the  administration  of  the 
province  of  Asia;  but  he  declined  the  honour  on  the  plea  of 
infirm  health,  for  he  suffered  much  from  gout,  of  which  he 
very  often  complains  in  his  letters.  He  appears  to  have 
become  possessed  of  considerable  property,  for  he  owned  the 
gardens  of  Mtecenas  and  several  villas,  and  expended  large 
sums  upon  the  building  of  splendid  baths.  He  seems  to 
have  died  in  a.d.  168,  in  the  reign  of  M.  Aurelius,  for  there 
are  no  letters  of  a  later  date  than  that  yeai'.  He  left  behind 
him  only  one  daughter,  his  wife  and  five  children  having 
died  before  him.  The  affectionate  friendship  subsisting  be- 
tween him  and  the  Emperor  M.  Aurelius  is  the  best  evidence 
of  the  kind  and  amiable  charactei-s  of  both  men.  Fronto's 
admiration  of  his  patron  sometimes  degenerates  into  flattery, 
though  at  other  times  he  does  not  hesitate  to  tell  him  dis- 
agreeable truths.  When  the  emperor  had  made  up  his  mind 
to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  Fronto  left  no 
means  untried  to  dissuade  him  from  it,  and  to  win  him  back 
to  oratory,  which,  in  his  estimation,  was  the  only  pursuit 
worthy  of  a  great  mind. 

Fronto's  favourite  authors,  whose  study  he  also  recom- 
mended to  his  pupils  as  models  worthy  of  imitation,  were 
Jainius,  Plautus,  Cato,  Gracchus,  Lucretius,  Laberius^  and 


A.D.  14-600.] 


M.    CORNELIUS   FRONTO. 


'  179 


Sallust.  Cicero  is  sometimes  praised  by  him,  more  especially 
when  he  needs  the  support  of  his  authority  in  setting  forth 
the  advantages  of  oratory,  otherwise  he  seems  to  speak  of 
him  with  a  kind  of  secret  contempt,  and  certainly  professes  to 
prefer  his  letters  to  his  speeches.  What  he  misses  in  Cicero 
are  the  very  things  through  which  his  own  style  becomes 
pedantic  and  tasteless,  viz.,  the  aiming  at  what  is  rare,  old- 
lashioned,  unusual,  and  novel.  Against  the  philosopher 
feeneca  he  has  a  very  strong  prejudice. 

Till  very  recent  times  the  only  work  of  Fronto  known  to 
^''^«^T^^  ^^""^^  treatise  i>e  i>ty6mij5m  Vocahulorum;  but 
in  1«14,  A.  Mai  discovered  a  palimpsest,  containing  a  con- 
siderable  portion   of  the   correspondence   between  Fronto 
Antoninus  Pius,  M.  Aurelius,  L.  Verus,  and  several  other 
triends.     Subsequently  another  portion  of  letters  was  found 
in  the  Vatican  library,  at  Rome,  where  the  whole  collection 
was  published,  in  1823.   These  discoveries  brought  to  light  not 
only  a  considerable  part  of  the  correspondence  of  Fronto  but 
fragments  of  essays  on  various  subjects;  the  contents  however 
are  so  trivial,  and  the  style  is  so  vapid,  that  scholars  were  not 
a  little  disappomted  in  their  expectations.     The  correspond- 
ence between  Fronto  and  his  imperial  pupils  is  indeed  pleasin<r 
inasmuch  as  it  shows  the  kindly  relation  subsisting  between 
them;  but  it  treats  almost  exclusively  of  the  most  ordinary 
domestic  occurrences.     The  following  is  a  list  of  the  works 
thus  partially  recovered,  for  scarcely  one  is  complete,  most  of 
them  being,  to  a  very  great  extent,  mutilated  ;— 

1.  Epistolamt^n  ad  M.  Ccesarem  lihri  F".,  addressed  to  M 
Aurelius  before  his  accession,  comprising  in  all  122  letters' 
some  of  which  are  only  short  notes.  * 

2.  Epistolarum  ad  Antoninum  Imperatorem  lihri  II.  com- 
prising eighteen  letters,  written  after  the  accession  of  M. 
Aurelius. 

3.  Epistolm  ad  Verum,  consisting  of  only  two  letters, 
probably  addressed  to  M.  Aurelius  before  his  accession,  when 
he  was  generally  called  M.  Annius  Verus. 

4  Epistohrum  ad  Verum  Imperatorem  liber,  comprising 
thirteen  letters,  six  by  Verus  and  seven  by  Fronto 

5.  ^eBello  Farthico,  a  fragment  of  the  history  of  the  war 
against  the  Parthians,  drawn  up  at  the  request  of  Verus 


180 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


6.  Be  Feriis  Alsiendbus,  consisting  of  four  epistles,  in 
which  Fronto  advises  the  emperor  to  make  use  of  these  holi- 
days for  his  recreation. 

7.  J)e  Nepote  Jmtsso,  a  letter  of  condolence,  written  by 
M.  Aui'elins  to  Fronto  upon  the  death  of  the  latter's  grand- 
son, with  a  lengthy  reply  by  Fronto. 

8.  Aricni,  a  rhetorical  exercise  on  the  story  of  Arion,  as 
related  by  Herodotus. 

9.  De  Uloquentiay  a  fragment  of  an  epistle  addressed  to  M. 
Caesar. 

10.  Be  OrationibuSj  two  letters  addressed  to  Antoninus 
Augustus. 

11.  EpistolcB  ad  Antoninum  Piuitij  in  all  nine  letters,  the 
addresses  of  two  of  which  are  uncertain. 

12.  Epistolanim  ad  Amicos  libri  II. y  containing  thirty- 
seven  letters  written  by  Fronto,  except  one  which  is  written 
by  the  Greek  historian  Appian,  in  Greek,  to  which  Fronto 
replies  in  Greek. 

13.  Principia  Historue,  is  only  a  short  fragment  of  an 
epistle  sent  to  L.  Verus,  who  had  requested  Fronto  to  write 
a  history  of  the  war  he  had  carried  on  against  the  Paithians. 

14.  Laudes  fumi  et  Fulveris,  and  Laudes  Neglig entice y 
fragments  of  rather  dull  pleasantly,  addressed  to  young  M. 
Aurelius. 

In  the  extant  fragments  of  these  works,  and  in  the  later 
gi'ammarians,  other  writings  of  Fronto  are  mentioned  which 
are  entirely  lost,  and  of  which  we  know  nothing  beyond  their 
titles;  all  of  them  were  either  epistles  or  orations  delivered 
either  in  the  courts  of  justice  or  in  the  senate.* 

160.  The  historians  of  this  time  generally  wrote  in  Greek, 
and  there  are  only  two  Latin  historians  that  probably  be- 
longed to  this  period. 

1.  L.  Ampelius,  the  author  of  a  little  work,  entitled  Liber 
Memoi-ialis,  an  epitome  of  all  that  was  thought  worth  know- 
ing in  history,  geogi-aphy,  and  astronomy,  dedicated  to  one 
Macrinus.     As  Trajan  is  the  latest  person  mentioned  in  the 

*  All  that  remains  of  the  writings  of  Fronto  has  been  carefully 
collected  and  edited  by  Niebuhr:  Berlin,  1816,  with  a  supplement 
published  at  Celle,  in  1832.  A  revised  edition  of  the  text,  by  S.  A 
Naber,  was  published  in  1867  in  Teubner's  collection. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


GRANltJS   LICINIANUS. 


181 


book,  it  Ls  probable  that  it  was  composed  soon  after  the  death 
of  that  emperor.  The  author  has  made  use  of  Cornelius 
Nepos  and  Florus.  The  fact  that  he  is  more  minute  in  his 
account  of  the  East  than  in  that  of  Italy,  has  led  to  the  belief 
that  he  was  not  a  native  of  Italy;  but  we  know  absolutely 
nothing  about  him.  His  little  work,  consisting  of  fifty  short 
chapters,  is  generally  printed  together  with  the  work  of  L. 
Annseus  Florus.  « 

2.  Granius  Licinianus,  the  author  of  a  history  of  Rome 
during  its  republican  period.  The  work  was  unknown  till 
about  twenty-five  years  ago,  when  a  manuscript  of  it  was 
discovered  in  the  British  Museum.  It  was  first  published  at 
Berlin,  in  1857,  by  C.  A.  F.  Pertz,  under  the  title  of  Gaii 
Grani  Liciniani  Annalium  Qikb  Supersunt.  The  whole  work 
probably  consisted  of  forty  books;  the  fragments  belong  to 
books  26,  28,  and  36,  and  refer  to  the  years  B.C.  163  and  78. 
The  author  appears  not  to  have  carried  the  history  beyond 
the  death  of  Julius  Csesar,  though  mention  is  made  of  the 
Olympieum  at  Athens,  which  was  completed  by  Hadi-ian. 
This  circumstance,  and  the  affected  use  of  archaisms  in  his 
style,  render  it  probable  that  Licinianus  lived  in  the  time  of 
the  Antonines.  He  is  very  fond  of  recording  what  is  strange 
and  marvellous.  The  last  editors  (Leipzig,  1858,  in  Teubner's 
collection),  believe  that  the  author  was  a  contemporary  of 
Augustus,  and  that  the  present  form  of  the  work  is  only  an 
abridgment  made  during  the  period  of  the  Antonines. 

161.  The  poetical  productions  of  this  time  are  most  insig- 
nificant; but  there  is  a  poem,  entitled  Pervigilium  Veneris, 
consisting  of  ninety-three  elegant  trochaic  lines,  which  may 
possibly  belong  to  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius.  Venus  is 
conceived  as  representing  the  productive  power  of  Nature, 
and  as  honoured  in  spring  and  at  flower  festivals.  The  style 
is  rhetorical  and  animated,  and  sometimes  verges  on  the  sen- 
timental. Of  the  author  absolutely  nothing  is  known,  and 
the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  poem  is  purely  conjectural.* 

162.  Learning  and  gi-ammatical  pursuits  were  becoming 
more  and  more  popular  and  fashionable,  and  learned  discus- 
sions on  grammar  were  the  favourite  amusements  in  public 

*  It  is  printed  in  Wemsdorf's  Poetos  Lat.  Minor es  III.,  p.  463, 
foil.;  and  in  A.  Riese's  Anthologia  Lat,  I.,  p.  144,  foil. 


1 


182 


SISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [pERIOD  V. 


as  well  as  in  private  society.  A  man  of  note  in  this  depart- 
ment is 

C.  Sulpicius  ApoUinariSj  of  Carthage,  one  of  the  teachers 
of  Grellius  and  of  the  Emperor  Pertinax.  He  published 
Qucestiones  Epistoliccey  and  metrical  arguments  of  the  plays 
of  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  of  Vergil's  jEneid.* 

Other  grammarians  occupied  themselves  chiefly  with  teach- 
ing and  discussing  grammatical  t[uestions,  and  do  not  appear 
to  have  published  anything,  or  if  they  did,  their  works  are 
lost.  By  far  the  most  important  writer  whom  we  may  class 
among  the  grammarians  is 

A.  Gellius,  whose  life  seems  to  have  extended  from  about 
A.D.  115  to  165.  He  was  educated  at  Rome,  where  he  had 
the  advantage  of  the  most  distinguished  teachers.  After- 
wards he  continued  his  studies  at  Athens,  and  having  stayed 
there  for  at  least  two  years  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  his 
whole  life  seems  to  have  been  spent  in  reading  and  studying, 
occasionally  undertaking  the  civil  duty  of  a  judex.  At  a 
later  period  he  went  back  to  his  beloved  Athens,  and  there 
began  to  compose  his  work  Nodes  AtticoSf  in  twenty  books, 
in  which  he  most  diligently  and  conscientiously  collected 
what  he  had  learned  from  books  and  conversations  with  the 
learned  on  the  early  Latin  language  and  literature,  on  philo- 
sophy, law,  natural  science,  etc.  The  work  must  have  been 
composed  between  a.d.  150  and  160,  and  is  to  us  of  the 
highest  interest  as,  more  than  any  other  work  of  the  time, 
it  gives  us  an  insight  into  the  intellectual  condition  of  the 
age,  although  the  author  himself  is  a  man  of  a  small  mind, 
who  amuses  himself  with  small  matters,  and  is  not  free  from 
all  sorts  of  prejudices  and  pedantries.  Each  chapter  is,  as 
it  were,  an  independent  treatise  on  some  subject  which 
happened  to  interest  him.  The  order  therefore  in  which 
matters  are  discussed  is  purely  accidental,  and  there  is  no 
kind  of  connection  among  them.  The  language  is  simple,  but 
interspersed  with  archaisms.  His  good-natured  mediocrity 
is  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  period  in  which  he  lived. 
He  is  learned,  but  lacks  wisdom  and  judgment;  industrious, 
but  without  the  power  of  producing  anything  original.     The 

*  These  arguments  still  exist,  and  are  printed  in  Meyer's  Antho- 
logia  Lat.f  p.  73,  foil. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


GAIUS. 


183 


t\' 


eighth  book  is  wanting,  and  we  possess  only  the  table  of  the 
contents  of  the  several  chapters  of  which  it  consisted.  What 
makes  the  Nodes  Atticce  so  valuable  to  us  is  the  fact  that  it 
contains  numerous  extracts  from  works  which  are  lostj  and 
that  these  extracts  are  all  made  with  scrupulous  care,  so  that 
they  can  be  relied  upon.* 

163.  The  jurists  under  Antoninus  Pius  still  maintained 
their  pre-eminence,  and  many  of  them  wrote  works  which 
continued  to  be  looked  upon  as  standard  treatises  down  to 
the  latest  times.     The  most  celebrated  among  them  are : — 

Sext.  Julius  AfricanuSy  who,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  wrote  QucestioneSy  in  nine  books. 

Terentius  Clemens,  the  author  of  a  work,  in  twenty  books, 
Ad  Legem  Juliam  et  Papiam. 

Ju7iius  MauricianuSy  who  also  wrote  a  work  Ad  Legem 
Juliam  et  Papiamy  and  another  De  Poenis,  in  at  least  two 
books. 

^  L.  Volusius  MarcianuSy  who  wrote  sixteen  books  of  Quces- 
tiones de  Fideicommissisy  and  De  Puhlicis  Judiciis,  in  fifteen 
books.  Marcianus  also  composed  for  his  pupil,  young  M. 
Aurelius,  a  little  work  still  extant  on  the  divisions  of  money, 
weights,  and  measures.  (It  is  printed  in  Hultsch's  Scriptores 
Metrolog.  Pomani). 

Ulpius  MarceUus  wrote  many  works,  which  are  often 
quoted  in  the  Digesta;  but  none  of  these  jurists  is  of  gi-eater 
importance  to  us  than  Gaius.  He  seems  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Asia  Minor,  but  was  at  Rome  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Hadrian,  and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  teaching  and 
writing  on  legal  subjects.  Of  his  life  nothing  is  known,  and 
the  time  in  which  he  lived  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy,  for  while  some  have  looked  upon  him  as  a  con- 
temporary of  Augustus,  others  have  placed  him  as  late  as 
Theodosius,  Arcadius,  or  even  Justinian.  However,  it  is 
now  generally  admitted  that  he  lived  in  the  time  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  that  he  witnessed  the  accession  of  M.  Aurelius,  and 
that  therefore  he  was  the  oldest  of  the  five  jurists  whose 
works,  by  a  law  of  Yalentinian,  in  a.d.  426,  were  to  be  re- 

*  The  principal  edition  of  Gellius  is  that  of  Gronovius:  Ley  den, 
1706,  reprinted  at  Leipzig,  in  1762.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of  M. 
Hertz:  Leipzig,  1853,  in  2  vols. 


184 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


garded  as  legal  authorities.  Among  the  many  works  com- 
posed by  Gaius,  the  most  important  are  his  Institutionum 
Commentarii  QuattuoVy  or  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the 
Roman  law.  It  contains  a  well-arranged  summary  of  the 
civil  law,  treating  of  the  family  relations,  of  res  and  ohliga- 
t'lones,  and  actiones.  Its  usefulness  was  soon  acknowledged; 
it  became  the  text-book  in  all  the  law  schools  of  the  empire, 
and  when  Justinian  ordered  his  commission  of  jurists  to 
draw  up  the  new  Institutes,  those  of  Gaius  were  used  as  a 
model,  and  many  parts  of  it  were  incorporated  with  the 
Institutes  of  Justinian.  Before  that  time  Gaius*  work  had 
been  abridged  and  mutilated,  and  now  it  fell  into  disuse,  so 
that  it  was  known  only  from  quotations  in  other  works.  For 
many  centuries  the  Institutes  of  Gaius  had  been  believed  to 
be  lost,  when,  in  1815,  Niebuhr,  by  a  fortunate  accident,  dis- 
covered the  original  work  at  Verona,  in  a  palimpsest  manu- 
script. Nearly  the  whole  of  it  was  made  legible;  and  in 
1820  the  first  edition  was  published  at  Berlin,  by  Goschen 
and  Hollweg.  There  are  a  few  gaps  in  the  work,  but  they 
are  not  of  much  consequence.  To  the  student  of  Eoman  law 
the  work  is  of  the  highest  importance;  its  style  is  simple 
and  clear,  and  altogether  free  from  the  rhetorical  afiectations 
of  the  time.* 

Gaius  wrote  numerous  other  works,  the  titles  of  which  are 
known  from  the  references  made  to  them  in  the  Pandects. 

164.  Philosophical  pursuits,  especially  the  study  of  the 
Stoics,  became  fashionable  at  Home  when  young  M.  Aurelius 
displayed  his  gi-eat  partiality  for  it;  but  the  Stoicism  of  the 
time  was  something  veiy  difierent  from  what  it  had  been 
originally.  It  had  more  and  more  become  a  sort  of  practical 
wisdom,  without  any  originality  of  thought,  and  its  professors 
seem  to  have  confined  themselves  to  teaching  and  lecturing, 
and  we  hear  of  no  eminent  writers,  though  many  are  spoken 
of  as  distinguished  teachers. 

165.  The  reign  of  M.  Aurelius,  (from  A.D,  161  to  180), 
might  have  been  a  bright  period  in  Roman  literature,  but 
nothing  could  check  its  downward  course.     The  emperor 

*  The  best  and  most  complete  edition  of  Gaius  is  that  of  C.  Lach- 
mann:  Berlin,  1842;  which  also  contains  a  fragment  of  an  anonymous 
jurist  Dejurejisci,  contained  in  the  same  palimpsest  as  Gaius. 


A.D.  14.600.] 


L.   APULEIUS. 


185 


himself,  who  had  been  educated  by  Pronto,  for  a  time  followed 
the  advice  of  his  tutor,  made  extracts  from  the  books  recom- 
mended to  him,  collected  synonyms,  sentences  and  rhetorical 
figures,  and  even  made  verses ;  but  when  he  discovered  the 
hollowness  and  uselessness  of  such  occupations,  he  allowed 
himself,  to  the  great  vexation  of  Pronto,  to  be  persuaded  by 
Junius  Rusticus  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  the  Stoic  philo- 
sophy.    Besides  his  letters  to  Pronto,  and  a  few  others,  we 
possess,  by  M.   Aurelius,   twelve  books  of  "  Meditations," 
written  in  Greek,  as  was  the  custom  with  most  of  the  philo- 
sophers of  the  time.     These  meditations  show  the  emperor 
to  have  been  one  of  the  noblest  characters  that  ever  adorned 
a  throne.     L.  Verus,  his  colleague,  who  is  praised  by  Pronto 
for  his  eloquence,  wished  his  exploits  in  the  East  to  be  im- 
mortalised by  his  tutor.     Literature  during  this  time  appears 
to  have  enjoyed  the  most  perfect  freedom,  for  it  is  related 
that  the  author  of  a  mimus  attacked  the  emperor  on  the 
stage  with  impunity;  but  it  was  still  under  the  unhappy 
influence  of  Pronto.     Many  men  are,  indeed,  mentioned  by 
this  rhetorician  as  great  orators  at  the  time,  but  none  of 
them  produced  any  work  worth  mentioning,  except,  perhaps, 
Julius  Titianus,  who  wrote  fictitious  epistles,  under  the  name 
of  illustrious  women.  Whether  he  is  the  same  as  the  Titianus 
who  wrote  on  geography,  on  ^tna,  on  rhetoric,  agriculture, 
and  fables,  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty,  as  none  of 
these  works  are  extant. 

166.  Poetical  productions  continued  to  be  as  scanty  and 
as  poor  as  before.  The  only  writer  of  importance  durino- 
this  period— and  he  was  an  African— is  L.  Apuleius,  com^ 
monly  called  Apuleius  Platonicus,  of  Madaura,  on  the  frontier 
between  Numidia  and  Gsetulia.  The  circumstances  of  his 
life  are  known  to  us  only  through  one  of  his  own  speeches, 
Le  Magia,  According  to  this  he  must  have  been  born 
between  a.d.  125  and  130,  and  belonged  to  a  wealthy  and 
respected  family.  He  spent  his  early  years  at  Carthage, 
probably  for  the  sake  of  his  education.  Thence  he  went^to 
Athens,  where  he  studied  poetry,  music,  philosophy,  rhetoric, 
and  geometry.  Afterwards  he  travelled  much  in  the  East, 
during  which  time  he  spent  a  great  part  of  his  fortune.  On 
his  return  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Rome,  supporting  him- 


186 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V, 


A.D.  14-600.] 


t,  APULEltTS. 


m 


self  for  some  time  by  acting  as  a  pleader  in  the  courts  of  law. 
How  long  he  continued  this  practice  is  not  known ;  at  all 
events  he  returned  to  his  native  place,  and  on  one  occasion 
when  he  was  travelling  from  Madaura  to  Alexandria  he  was 
taken  ill  at  (Ea.    He  there  became  acquainted  with  a  wealthy 
lady,  Emilia  Pudentilla,  the  widow  of  one  Sicinius  Amicus, 
by  whom  she  had  two  sons;  Pontianus,  the  elder  of  the  two, 
had  kno^vn  Apuleius  at  Athens,  and  the  acquaintance  was 
of  couree  renewed.   The  lady,  although  she  had  been  a  widow 
for  thirteen  years  and  had  now  reached  the  age  of  forty,  for 
reasons  of  health  wished  to  marry  again,  and  Apuleius  was 
persuaded  by  Pontianus  to  make  her  his  wife,  although  she 
was  old  enough  to  be  his  mother.     This  marriage  brought 
him  into  trouble  :  for  the  relations  of  her  former  husband 
were  highly  disgusted  with  it;  and  when,  soon  afterwards, 
Pontianus  died  at  Carthage,  they  brought  an  action  against 
Apuleius,  alleging  that  he  had  caused  the  death  of  the  young 
man,  although  it  was  well  known  that  he  had  always  treated 
his  step-sons  with  extreme  liberality.    As  the  relations  failed 
in  this  action,  Sicinius  ^milianus,  an  uncle  of  Pontianus,  and 
Herennius  Rufinus,  the  father-in-law  of  Pontianus,  brought 
against  Apuleius  the  charge  of  sorcery,  asserting  that  he  had 
won  the  affections  of  Pudentilla  by  sorcery,  an  offence  pun- 
ishable by  death.     The  trial  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Anto- 
ninus, consequently  before  a.  a  161,  and  undoubtedly  ended 
in   his   acquittal.     The   speech  which  he  delivered  in  his 
defence  he  afterwards  elaborated  more  fully,  and  published 
under  the  title  of  Apologia,  or  Fro  se  apud  Claudium  Maxi- 
mum jyroconsulem  de  m^ia  libe)\     However,  the  whole  affair 
seems  to  have  disgusted  him  with  (Ea,  for  he  went  back  to 
Carthage,  where  he  acquired  gi-eat  celebrity  by  his  speeches 
and  declamations.     He  does  not  appear  ever  to  have  held 
any  public  office,  except  some  of  a  priestly  character.     No 
further  details  of  his  life  are  known,  nor  have  we  any  infor- 
mation about  the  time  of  his  death.    In  aftertimes  the  account 
of  his  trial  for  sorceiy  seems  to  have  created  the  belief  that 
he  was  actually  a  sorcerer. 

Apuleius,  with  his  extraordinary  facility  of  composition, 
attempted  every  variety  of  subjects  in  prose  and  in  verse, 
in  Greek  as  well  as  in  Latin,  and  he  himself  somewhat 


boastingly  gives  us  a  catalogue  of  his  performances :  poems 
of  every  kind,  epic,  lyric;  comedy,  tragedy,  satire,  ludi- 
cra,  various  histories,  orations,  philosophy,  and  dialogues. 
At  the  time  of  his  trial  he  had  already  delivered  speeches, 
and  published  them  as  well  as  poetry,  such  as  verses  on 
tooth-powder,  amatory  verses,  a  hymn  to  ^sculapius,  in 
both  Latin  and  Greek.  He  afterwards  wrote  a  work  called 
ffermagorasj  perhaps  a  novel  of  the  same  kind  as  the  3feta- 
morphoses,  and  treatises  on  arithmetic,  music,  astronomy, 
medicine,  trees,  two  books  of  proverbs,  and  a  free  translation 
of  Plato's  Fhcedo;  but,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  frag- 
ments, these  works  are  all  lost.  The  following  are  either 
wholly  or  partially  preser\^ed  : — 

1.  Apologia,  or  Be  magia  liber,  which  has  already  been 
mentioned.  As  Apuleius  had  no  difficulty  in  defending  him- 
self against  the  charge  of  sorcery,  he  avails  himself  of  the 
opportunity  of  displaying  his  wit  and  learning;  and  consider- 
ing that  he  had  great  temptation  to  show  his  rhetorical  skill, 
the  style  is  comparatively  simple  and  easy. 

2.  Florida,  in  four  books,  containing  twenty-three  extracts 
from  speeches  and  declamations,  most  of  which  were  delivered 
at  Carthage  in  the  theatre,  or  before  the  proconsul  Severi- 
anus.  The  extracts  refer  to  philosophy,  history,  and  natural 
science,  the  last  of  which  subjects  appears  to  have  had  great 
attraction  for  Apuleius.  He  seems  to  have  understood  the 
art  of  seasoning  his  speeches  by  introducing  interesting 
stories. 

3.  Be  Beo  Socratis  is  a  very  diffuse  explanation  of  Plato's 
doctrine  about  the  three  kinds  of  beings,  gods,  men,  and 
demons,  in  which  he  combats  some  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Epicureans. 

4.  Be  Bogmate  Flatonis  lihri  TIL— The  first  book  treats 
of  the  life  of  Plato  and  his  Fhihsophia  Naturalis ;  the  second 
of  his  ethics,  or  Fhihsophia  Moralis.  The  third,  which  is 
inscribed  Be  Fhilosophia  Rationali  aive  mp)  tpfiTiPEiag,  treats  of 
logic,  not  the  logic  of  Plato,  but  rather  the  logic  of  Aristotle, 
in  a  form  somewhat  dry  and  different  from  the  usual  style  of 
Apuleius,  whence  some  critics  maintain  that  it  was  not 
written  by  him,  but  was  added  by  some  writer  of  the  third 
or  fourth  century. 


v> 


li 


188 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V, 


A.D.  14-600.] 


iEMILIUS   PAPINIANUS. 


189 


5.  De  MundOy  in  one  book,  addressed  to  Faiistinus,  is 
based,  according  to  the  introduction,  on  a  Greek  work  of 
Theophrastus,  but  also  contains  much  that  is  specifically 
Roman. 

6.  Metamorphoseon  lihri  XI. — This  is  Apulems*  most 
celebrated  work.  It  is  a  satirical  novel,  containing  the  his- 
tory of  a  young  Greek,  Lucius  of  Patrae,  whose  curiosity  to 
learn  something  of  the  magic  arts  leads  him  to  visit  Thessaly, 
where,  by  some  mistake,  he  is  metamorphosed  into  an  ass, 
but  retains  his  consciousness  as  a  man.  He  relates  with 
great  humour  his  experiences  as  an  ass,  until  the  time  when 
he  recovered  his  human  form.  The  subject  is  taken  entirely 
from  Lucian's  Lucius,  with  the  exception  of  the  conclusion, 
which  is  Apuleius'  own.  The  whole  tale  is  interspersed  with 
stories  of  ghosts,  robbers,  and  the  like,  and  the  well  known 
history  of  Amor  and  Psyche  forms  a  most  delightful  episode. 
The  numerous  descriptions  of  men  and  manners  render  the 
story  particularly  interesting  to  us.  The  style,  which  has  a 
great  deal  of  the  African  Latinity,  is  often  strained  and 
rhetorical,  but  often  also  clear  and  animated.  This  novel 
enjoyed  great  celebrity  in  later  times,  and  seems  to  have  been 
popularly  known  by  the  name  of  the  Golden  Ass  (Asimia 
Aureus). 

Lastly,  we  possess,  under  the  name  of  Apuleius,  a  work 
entitled  uEsculapius  sive  dialogus  Ilermetis  Trismegisti.  This 
dialogue  between  ^sculapius  and  Hermes  Trismegistus  treats 
of  God,  the  world,  and  man;  it  is  a  new  Platonic  production 
of  no  value,  containing  traces  of  a  considerable  influence  of 
Christianity,  and  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  work  of 
Apuleius. 

All  his  genuine  works  show  that  he  was  a  man  of  great 
talent  and  extensive  knowledge ;  but  at  the  same  time  that 
he  was  extremely  vain,  and  under  the  influence  of  the  faulty 
taste  of  his  age  and  country.  His  thirst  for  knowledge  in 
every  department  seems  to  have  been  insatiable ;  but  the 
same  thii-st  also  led  him  to  pui*sue  the  marvellous  and  mys- 
terious, whence,  with  an  unusually  clear  understanding,  we 
find  combined  in  him  an  amount  of  superstition  which  is 
scarcely  credible.  He  is  fond  of  making  a  show  of  his  reli- 
gious feelings ;  and  although  he  regards  the  deities  of  the 


\ 


different  nations  only  as  different  names  of  one  and  the  same 
god,  he  is  nevertheless  hostile  to  Christianity.  His  real 
faith  is  that  of  Platonism,  mixed  up  with  Pythagorean  and 
other  mystic  elements.  He  had  a  great  command  of  lan- 
guage, but  still  Latin  is  to  him  evidently  an  acquired  tongue, 
which  he  uses  without  any  feeling  for  its  beauties  and  niceties, 
when,  e.g.y  he  employs  words  and  phrases  from  Plautus  in  his 
serious  discourses.  His  style  is,  moreover,  very  diff*use,  and 
overladen  with  all  manner  of  rhetorical  artifices.* 

167.  Jurisprudence  continued  its  brilliant  career  under  M. 
Aurelius,  under  whom  flourished  the  illustrious  Q.  Cervidius 
Sccevolay  the  teacher  of  Papinian  and  the  author  of  Digesta, 
in  forty  books,  which  were  of  great  use  to  the  compilers  of 
the  Pandects  under  Justinian.  A  contemporary  of  his, 
Papirius  Justus ^  made  a  collection  of  imperial  constitutions ; 
and  another,  PatemuSy  who  was  Latin  secretary  to  M.  Aure- 
lius, wrote  a  work  De  Re  Militariy  in  four  books,  which  is 
now  lost,  but  is  often  referred  to  by  Vegetius,  a  later  writer 
on  the  same  subject. 

168.  Commodus,  the  unworthy  son  of  M.  Aurelius,  who 
reigned  from  a.d.  180  to  192,  had  no  taste  for  anything  good, 
noble,  or  intellectual,  and  the  brief  reigns  of  Pertinax  and 
Didius  Julianus  (a.d.  193)  could  exercise  no  influence  upon 
literature ;  but  the  active  and  able  Septimius  Severus  (from 
A.D.  193  to  211)  at  least  appreciated  its  value,  and  himself 
wrote  a  history  of  his  own  public  and  private  life,  in 
which,  among  other  things,  he  defended  himself  against  the 
charge  of  cruelty.  Under  him  poetry  still  remained  mute, 
but  jurisprudence  continued  its  brilliant  career,  and  Chris- 
tianity had  its  fii*st  public  defenders. 

The  great  jurist,  JImilius  Papinianus,  was  a  friend  of 
Septimius  Severus,  and  under  him  held  the  office  of  prsefectus 
prsetorio ;  he  was  not  only  an  honourable  and  faithful  servant 
of  his  sovereign,  but  a  man  of  real  genius  in  his  own  depart- 
ment, and  by  his  writings  gained  and  maintained  the  admira- 
tion of  many  generations  of  jurists.     The  most  important 

*  The  chief  edition  of  Apuleius  is  that  of  Oudendorp  :  Leyden, 
1786-1823,  in  3  vols.  A  more  recent  edition,  which  also  contains 
the  remaining  fragments  of  the  lost  works,  ia  that  of  G.  F.  H, 
Hildebrand:  Leipzig,  1842,  in  2  vols. 


A 


190  HISTORY  OP  LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

among  his  works  were  Qucestiones,  in  thu-fcj-seven  books, 
and  Responsa,  in  nineteen  books,  works  which  were  much 
used  in  the  compilations  made  imder  Justinian.  Severus 
recommended  to  his  care  his  two  sons,  Geta  and  Caracalla; 
but  soon  after  his  accession  Caracalla  ordered  the  friend  of 
his  father  to  be  murdered,  because  he  preserved  his  loyalty 
to  Geta. 

Among  other  jurists  of  the  time,  Callistratus,  a  native  of 
Greece,  wrote  Be  Jure  Fisci,  in  four  books,  Qucestiones,  in 
two  books,  and  several  other  legal  works;  A.  Claudius  Try- 
phonius  wrote  notes  on  Scsevola's  Digesta,  and  Disputationes, 
in  twenty-one  books;  Ai-rius  Menander.o.  Greek,and  amember 
of  the  imperial  council,  wi-ote  on  military  law.  in  four  books. 
It  may  be  remarked  here  that  Tertullian,  the  great  Christian 
apologist,  before  his  conversion,  wrote  several  works  on  law, 
such  as  Qumtiones,  in  eight  books,  and  a  Liber  de  castrensi 
pecuho;  and  even  in  his  polemical  works  on  theology  his 
cleverness  as  a  laAvyer  is  conspicuous  everywhere. 

169.  The  earliest  Christian  work  in  Latin  that  has  come 
down  to  our  time  is  a  dialogue  of  M.  Minucius  Felix,  entitled 
Octavius.  Felix  was  a  distinguished  Roman  advocate,  and 
composed  his  work  in  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus.  The 
dialogue,  resembling  in  form  the  dialogues  of  Cicero,  is 
carried  on  by  Felix  himself  (under  the  name  of  Marcus), 
Csecilius  Natalis,  and  Octavius  Januarius.  The  scene  is  on 
the  sea-coast,  near  Ostia,  and  the  time  apparently  the  rei<ni 
of  M.  Aurelius.  Csecilius  attacks  the  Christians  as  apostat°es 
from  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  and  as  offending  against 
morality  and  good  breeding.  Octavius,  on  the  other  hand, 
defends  them,  and  maintains  that  Christianity  is  far  superior 
to  polytheism,  whose  faults  and  evil  consequences  he  severely 
chastises.  His  oi^ponent  in  the  end  confesses  that  on  the  main 
points  he  is  convinced,  although  some  doubts  still  remain  in 
his  mmd.  It  is  very  remarkable  that,  notwithstanding  the 
violent  opposition  to  the  Christians  at  the  time,  the  dialogue 
shows  no  spirit  of  animosity  or  bitterness ;  it  further  gives 
lis  a  clear  idea  of  the  notions  entertained  about  Christianity 
by  the  educated  among  the  converts,  who,  being  repulsed  by 
the  immoi-alities  of  polytheism,  were  deeply  impressed  and 
j^ttmcted  bjr  the  idea  of  one  god.     On  this  last  point  th§ 


A.D.  14-600.]        Q.    SEPTIMIUS   FLORENS   TERTULLIANUS.         191 

speaker  becomes  truly  eloquent  and  sublime,  and  is  full  of 
admiration  of  the  pride  and  joy  with  which  Christians  meet 
their  death.  The  style  of  the  work  is  sometimes  rhetorical, 
but,  on  the  whole,  much  more  fresh  and  natural  than  the 
usual  style  of  the  time.* 

"^  170.  Q.  Septimius  Florens  Tertullianus  is  reported  to 
have  died  a.d.  217,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty,  whence 
he  must  have  been  born  about  a.d.  137.  He  was  a  native 
of  Carthage,  and  the  son  of  a  Roman  centurion.  It  has 
already  been  observed  that  he  was  a  lawyer  by  profession, 
and  that  before  his  conversion  to  Christianity  he  wrote  some 
important  works  on  law.  Afterwards  he  became  a  presbyter  of 
the  Roman  church,  and  remained  so  till  middle  age;  but  then, 
being  much  annoyed  by  the  Roman  clergy,  he  joined  the  Mon- 
tanists,  a  sect  which  had  arisen  in  Phrygia,  and  was  remark- 
able for  its  ecstatic  visions  and  ideas  about  the  approaching 
end  of  all  things ;  their  fantastic  prophecies  and  ascetic  mode 
of  life  were  quite  in  harmony  with  his  enthusiastic  and 
excitable  nature,  and  he  became  their  champion  in  the 
western  parts  of  the  empire,  though  his  strong  and  keen 
intellect  somewhat  modified  theii*  extravagant  ideas. 

Tertullian  is  a  writer  full  of  originality,  imagination,  and 
ready  wit ;  and  when  under  the  influence  of  passion  his  elo- 
quence is  often  sublime.  Polemics  is  his  element,  whence 
most  of  his  numerous  writings  are  polemical  and  apologetic ; 
they  are  throughout  full  of  thought,  passionate,  and  acute, 
,  and  his  language  is  energetic  and  concise,  even  to  obscurity. 
His  principal  work,  entitled  Apologeticum,  composed  a.d. 
199,  is  a  defence  of  Christianity,  addressed  to  the  rulers 
{mitistites)  of  the  Roman  people.  The  main  charges  against 
the  Christians  were  that  they  neglected  the  worship  of  the 
gods  and  the  emperor,  and  that  they  were  indifferent,  and 
even  hostile,  to  the  good  of  the  state.  The  attacks  upon  his 
enemies  are  sharp  and  bitter,  his  style  is  rhetorical,  but 
original,  and  strongly  savours  of  the  African  Latinity. 

His  other  writings,  many  of  which  are  lost,  are  full  of 
information  about  the  manners  of  the  time  and  about  Roman 

*  The  best  editions  of  Minucius  Felix  are  those  of  J.  Gronovius: 
Leyden,  1709;  and  Rotterdam,  1743;  and  that  of  C.  de  Muralt: 
Zurich,  1837, 


ifi 


HISTORY   OF  LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

antiquities  in  general,  and  deserve  to  be  studied  much  more 
than  they  are.  Those  still  extant  are  De  idololatria,  De 
Spectaculis,  De  pallio,  Ad  nationeSy  and  a  few  others.* 

171.  Among  grammaiians  the  following  seem  to  belong  to 
this  period  : — 

1.  Uelenius  Acro7i,  who  wrote  commentaries  on  Terence, 
Horace,  and  apparently  also  on  Persius,  which  are  often 
referred  to,  but  are  now  lost.  The  scholia  on  Horace, 
which  we  possess  under  his  name,  are  at  best  only  extracts 
from  those  of  Acron  himself,  and  were  made  in  the  fourth 
or  fifth  century. 

2.  Pomponius  Porphyrion^  who  likewise  wrote  scholia  on 
Horace,  which  are  still  extant,  and  are  printed  in  some  of  the 
editions  of  the  poet. 

3.  Dositheus,  the  author  of  a  grammar,  with  exercises  in 
Latin  and  Greek,  which  still  exists,  and  is  printed  in  Keil's 
collection  of  the  Latin  gmmmarians.  His  knowledge  of 
Greek  seems  to  have  been  very  poor. 

4.  Serenus  Sammonicus  is  reported  to  have  possessed  a 
library  consisting  of  62,000  books,  and  to  have  written  seve- 
i-al  learned  works,  but  none  of  them  has  come  down  to  us. 

5.  Pompeius  Festus,  who  abridged  the  work  of  Verrius 
Flaccus  (see  p.  125),  likewise  seems  to  have  lived  about  this 
time. 

C.  Latin  Literature  During  the  Third  Century. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


JULIUS   PAULUS. 


193 


From  the  Accession  of  Caracalla  (a.d.  211)  to  the  Death  op"^ 

Diocletian  (a.d.  305). 

172.  During  this  period  the  general  decline  in  all  depart- 
ments continued,  and  in  the  end  drew  even  jurisprudence 
into  its  vortex.  There  was  more  intellectual  activity  in  the 
provinces  than  in  Italy,  and  Latin  was  written  by  Orientals 
as  well  as  by  Africans,  Gauls,  and  Spaniards,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  language  degenerated  and  was  filled  with  bar- 
barisms. History  dwindled  down  to  mere  biographies  of  the 
emperors,  and  even  these  in  the  end  became  pure  panegyrics. 
The  misfortunes  of  the  empire,  which  had  to  resist  invasions 

*  A  good  edition  of  the  works  of  Tertullian  is  that  of  Semler: 
Halle,  1770,  in  6  vols.  They  are  also  printed  in  the  collections  of 
the  Latin  £cclesiai)tical  Fathers. 


V 


from  all  quarters,  exercised  their  depressing  influence  upon  all 
classes,  and  nothing  great  was  produced.  The  Christian  apolo- 
gists alone  showed  spirit  and  enthusiasm  in  the  defence  of 
the  new  rehgion,  both  in  prose  and  in  verse,  though  they 
too  could  not  escape  from  the  prevailing  bad  tast«  in  all 
niattera  of  form. 

The  most  distinguished  jurists  of  this  period  were  :— 
1.  Domitius   Ulpianus,  a  native  of  Tyre,  who.  under 
Caraca  la  and  Alexander  Severus,  held  the  office  of  p^sfectus 
pr^tono,and  exercised  unbounded  influence;  but^Tn  a.d 
t.Z^^J''^  •""■•dered  by  the  prjetorians,  because  he  attempted 
to  restore  military  discipline  among  them.    As  a  writer  on 

sdl  more  those  of  his  contempomiy,  Paulus,  arVcom- 
pilations  and  expositions  of  principles  rather  than  original 
productions.  He  began  his  career  as  an  author  undeS 
timius  Severus  (a.d.  193-211);  but  the  period  of  his  greate  t 
activity  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Camcalla  (a.d.  211-217)  and 
his  successors.  The  most  important  among  his  numerous 
works  ar^^^  dictum,  in   eighty-three   boofa,  aM  7J 

t^7C'  r  f  ^T'  ^°°^'-  "^'^y  '"^''y  P-^^-S^;  of  these 
and  other  lost  works  are  .quoted  in  the  Pandects,  of  which, 
in  fact,  they  form  the  main  basis.  His  JieguLum  Z- 
fxwTn.rK''  ^^  I^^^^^tiorm,  in  two  books,  ai-e  stm 
!^!f^  'i  ?^  ^^}^  ?"'*°y  S^P«'  »"»<*  some  parts  only  in  an 
abridged  form.      Other  parts  of  these  works   are  knoC 

mr  te  '^"°*''^-  \  ^//-^dects.      In  the  MeguhrZ 
of  GaiS       P''""='P^"y  f«"°^«  *!»«  Plaii  and  arrangement 

2.  Julius  Paulus  was  likewise  prsfectus  praetorio  under 
Alexander  Severus  (ad.  222-235),  and  a  man  of  great  influ- 
ence He  seems  to  have  survived  Ulpian,  to  whom  he  is 
ranch  inferior  in  talent  and  in  the  powir  of  writing     Both 

burp^'r' ""  "trl  r^""^'  ^°*«  »P°''  *«  same°subjects; 
Llf  n-  P"^^*'"'*  ^  Sreat  many  monogiaphs  on  special 
fetv  bir'*  T.'^'-^^^'"'i^«  ^ork  was  his  AdEdltum, 
m  eighty  books,  and  his  most  popular  one  his  Sentmtiw,  hi 


r] 


194 


HISTORY   OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


five  books,  of  which  excerpts  are  still  extant  and  printed  in 
the  work  of  Gneist,  above  referred  to,  p.  326,  foil.  Extracts 
from  the  rest  of  his  numerous  works  form  about  the  sixth 
part  of  the  Pandects  of  Justinian. 

Other  jurists  of  this  period  were  ^lius  Mardamvs,  jEini- 
lius  Macer,  and  Herennius  ModestinuSy  who  wrote  Excusa- 
tionicm,  libri  VI.  in  Greek,  and  several  other  works  in  Latin, 
from  which  many  extracts  occur  in  the  Pandects.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  division  of  the  empire  under  Diocletian  it 
became  necessary  to  collect  the  imperial  constitutions  from 
the  time  of  Hadrian,  which  was  done  by  the  jurist  Gregori- 
anus  (Codex  Gregorianus),  whose  work  was  afterwards  sup- 
plemented. This  codification  of  the  laws  seems  to  have 
prevented  any  further  development  of  jurisprudence  by  indi- 
vidual jurists. 

173.  The  most  eminent  among  the  grammarians  of  the 

third  century  are — 

1.  Julius  BomanuSy  who  wi'ote  a  grammatical  work  appa- 
rently under  the  title  acpopiiai,  of  which  extensive  use  is 
made  in  the  existing  work  of  Charisius,  who,  in  fact,  has 
copied  whole  passages  from  it.  The  parts  of  it  which  are 
specially  referred  to  treat  of  analogy,  of  adverbs,  and  pre- 
positions. 

2.  Censorinus,  who  is  refen-ed  to  as  a  very  learned  author 
of  grammatical  works,  and  among  them  of  one  on  accents. 
Under  his  name  there  has  been  transmitted  to  us  a  book.  Be 
Die  Natali,  addressed  to  a  wealthy  friend,  Q.  Cierillius,  and 
written  A.D.  238.  The  book  is  a  birthday  present,  and  treats 
of  birth,  and  everything  that  can  by  any  means  be  connected 
with  it,  such  as  music,  the  difierent  stages  of  human  life,  the 
division  of  time,  etc.  The  conclusion  of  the  book  is  wanting. 
The  writer  tries  to  show  off  his  learning  by  naming  a  great 
number  of  Greek  and  Latin  works,  many  of  which  he  pro- 
bably never  saw.  Still,  however,  the  book  contains  infor- 
mation on  some  points  that  cannot  be  obtained  elsewhere. 
His  chief  authority  appears  to  have  been  the  Prata  of 
Suetonius.* 

3.  Atilius  FortuTiatianuSj  who  wrote  a  work  on  metres,  in 

♦  There  are  two  good  editions  of  his  work,  one  by  0.  Jalm:  Berlin, 
1845^  and  the  other  by  Hultsch;  I^eipzig,  1837. 


A.D.  14- COO.]       THASCIUS   CECILIUS   CYPRIANUS. 


195 


which,  on  the  whole,  he  followed  Csesius  Bassus;  but  whether 
he  really  belonged  to  this  period  is  uncertain.* 

174.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  history  was  written 
at  this  time,  at  least  in  Latin,  only  in  the  form  of  biographies, 
after  the  fashion  of  Suetonius.  Such  was  the  work  of  Marius 
Maximus,  who  wrote  very  verbose  but  truthful  biographies 
of  the  emperors,  from  Nerva  to  Elagabalus.  This  work  seems 
to  have  been  the  chief  source  from  which  the  Scriptores  His- 
torice  Augustce  derived  their  information  about  those  emperors. 
Another,  Junius  Cordus,  published  lives  of  less  known  em- 
perors, from  Claudius  Albinus  to  Maximus  and  Balbinus,  in 
which  he  entered  into  the  minutest  details.  Other  historians 
of  the  same  kind  are  mentioned  by  the  Scriptores  Historic^ 
Augustce,  but  none  of  their  works  have  come  down  to  us. 

175.  The   most   eminent   among    the   Christian   writei-s 
during  the  early  part  of  the  third  century  were — 

1.  Thascius  Csecilius  Cyprianus,  a  native  of  Africa,  who 
was  at  first  a  celebrated  teacher  of  rhetoric,  but  on  the  advice 
of  the  presbyter  Csecilius  he  became  a  Christian,  gave  all  his 
property  to  the  poor,  and  not  long  after  became  himself  a 
presbyter,  and  ultimately  Bishop  of  Carthage,  a.d.  248.  He 
suffered  martyrdom  under  the  Emperors  Valerian  and  Gal- 
lienus,  A.D.  258.  Cyprian  was  a  great  admirer  of  Tertullian, 
but  lacked  his  originality,  wit,  and  versatility;  Cyprian's  style, 
however,  is  clearer,  more  calm  and  dispassionate,  though  not 
quite  free  from  rhetorical  embellishments.  His  frequent 
quotations  from  the  Scriptures  give  to  his  writings  a  more 
specific  Christian  character,  and  as  he  kept  carefully  aloof 
from  heresies,  his  works  for  a  long  time  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity and  authority  in  the  church.  His  writings  are  partly 
apologetic,  and  often  mere  repetitions  of  the  arguments  of 
Tertullian,  and  partly  exhortations  to  the  Christians.  His 
eighty-one  epistles  throw  much  light  upon  the  history  of  this 
time.  The  same  is  the  case  with  his  minutes  of  the  synod 
held  at  Carthage,  in  a.d.  256  :  De  hcereticis  baptizandisA 

o  JJ®/^?^^^"^*^?  ^  ^^^^  ^^®  printed  in  Putschius,  Gram.  Lat., 
p.  2660,  folL,  and  m  Gaisford's  Scriptores  Lat.  Hei  Metricce,  p.  312, 

t  The  best  edition  of  Cyprian  is  that  by  W.  Hartel:  Wieu,  1868- 
70,  m  2  vols. 


196 


HISTORY    OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


2.  Novatianus,  a  presbyter  of  Rome,  who  lived  about  the 
same  time  as  Cyprian,  likewise  wrote  a  great  many  treatises, 
some  of  which,  however,  were  mere  abridgments  of  Tertullian. 
Extant  are  his  books  De  Trinitate  and  De  Cibis  Judceorum 
Epistola,  both  of  which  are  often  printed  together  with  the 
works  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian.* 

176.  Writers  of  verses,  for  they  scarcely  deserve  the  name 
of  poets,  are  not  uncommon  at  this  time;  some  of  them 
are  most  scrupulous  in  the  correctness  of  their  metres,  while 
others  set  all  the  rules  of  metre  and  prosody  at  defiance. 
The  following  are  the  best  known  among  them  : — 

1.  Alfius  Aviius,  who  wrote,  apparently,  a  history  of  Rome 
in  iambic  dimetres,  and  in  several  books,  some  lines  of  which 
are  still  extant  (see  Meyer,  Anthologia  Lat.  I.,  p.  45). 

2.  MariamcSf  who  wrote  Lupercalia  in  the  same  metre. 

3.  Septimius  Serenits,  a  lyric  poet,  who  wrote  a  poem  called 
Opuscula  t-uralia,  in  several  books,  of  which  we  still  possess 
the  beginning,  as  well  as  fragments  from  another  poem,  called 
Falisca,  after  an  estate  in  the  Faliscan  territory.  His  ver- 
sification is  elegant  and  his  style  graceful,  f 

3.  Q.  Serenus  SammoiiicuSy  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem, 
De  medicina  prcecepta^  in  1115  hexameter  lines,  which  is 
still  extant,  but  somewhat  mutilated  at  the  end.  It  describes 
the  remedies  for  several  diseases,  and  is  based  upon  the 
works  of  Pliny,  Discorides,  and  others.  Whether  the  author 
of  this  poem  is  the  celebrated  jjhysician  of  the  same  name, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Severus  and  Caracalla,  and  was  put 
to  death  by  the  latter,  or  his  son,  who  taught  the  younger 
Gordian,  is  uncertain,  though  it  is  more  likely  to  be  the  pro- 
duction of  the  latter,  for  the  author  of  the  poem  betrays 
very  little  special  knowledge,  but  all  the  more  supei-stition. 
The  language  is  bon-owed  partly  from  Vergil  and  partly 
from  Lucretius ;  but  the  poem  seems  to  have  been  written 
as  a  playful  amusement  by  one  to  whom  verse-making  was 
easy,  i-ather  than  us  a  serious  work  by  a  real  physician.  J 

*  Separate  cditious  by  E.  Welchman:  Oxford,  1724;  and  by  Jack- 
son: London,  1728. 

+  The  extant  fragments  of  these  poems  are  collected  in  Werns- 
dorf's  Poetcs  Lat.  Minores,  II.,  p.  279,  foil. 

:J:  It  is  printed  in  several  collections  of  medical  writers,  and  in 
Burmann's  Poetce  Lat.  Min.,  II.,  p.  185,  foil. 


A,1).  14-600.] 


MAXIMtJS. 


197 


4.  M.  Antonius  Gordianus  (emperor  from  A.D.  239  to  244) 
composed  an  epic  poem  in  imitation  of  Vergil's  ^neid, 
called  Antoninias,  in  thirty  books,  in  which  he  described  the 
public  and  private  life  of  the  Antonines,  whose  praise  he 
also  wrote  in  prose.     No  remains  of  these  works  now  exist. 

5.  Commodianus,  a  Christian  poet  who  flourished  durin<r 
the  first  half  of  the  third  century,  was  a  native  of  Gaza,  in 
byria.  He  had  been  a  pagan,  and  after  his  conversion  he 
wrote  verses  full  of  Christian  zeal  against  the  pagans.  We 
have  by  him  two  poems  in  hexameters,  in  which  every  rule 
of  prosody  and  metre  is  violated;  the  lines  are  constructed 
only  by  the  ear,  and  according  to  the  vulgar  mode  of  pronun- 
ciation. One  of  them  is  entitled  Instructiones,  composed 
about  A.D.  238,  and,  in  addition  to  its  metrical  irregularities, 
IS  adorned  with  acrostics.  The  second  poem,  written  about 
ten  years  later,  and  called  Carmen  apologeticum  adversm 
JudcBos  et  gentes,  is  not  quite  as  faulty  and  irregular  as  the 
earlier  production.* 

177.  In  the  reign  of  Cams  and  his  sons  (a.d.  282-284) 
we  meet  with  the  poet  M,  Aurelius  Olympius  Nemesiamis,  of 
Carthage,  who  wrote  a  didactic  poem  on  hunting  (Cynegetica), 
of  which  the  first  425  lines,  in  hexameter,  are  still  extant, 
froni  internal  evidence  it  is  clear  that  the  poem  was  written 
m  Africa,  and  after  the  death  of  Cams.  The  fragment  con- 
^ms  many  reminiscences  of  earlier  poets,  especially  of  Ver^^il 
The  language  is  rich  and  skilfully  handled.  There  further 
exist,  under  the  name  of  Nemesianus,  four  eclogues,  which 
m  reality  are  only  unsuccessful  imitations  of  four  eclogues  of 
Calpurnius.  A  fragment  of  a  poem,  De  aitcupio,  which  like- 
wise bears  the  name  of  Nemesianus,  is  probably  the  produc- 
tion of  much  more  recent  times.! 

178.  Maximus,  the  biographer  of  emperors  (p.  195),  appears 
to  have  had  a  large  number  of  followers,  whose  names  we 
meet  with  in  the  Scriptores  HistoricB  Augustw;  but  beyond 
the  works  of  this  collection  nothing  has  come  down  to  us. 
The  Historia  Augusta  has  been  transmitted  to  us  as  a  collec- 

nndi^''j'K'''Cf1^P'^/*'^  in  CEhler's  edition  of  Minucius  Felix, 
ana  m  J.  a.  I'ltra,  Specilegium  Solesmense:  Paris,  1852, 1.,  p  21  foil 


198 


filSTORY  OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


tion  of  the  biographies  of  six  different  writers.  The  first 
three  seem  to  have  written  their  lives  under  Diocletian, 
and  the  three  others  at  a  later  time,  imder  Constantius 
Chlonis  or  under  Constantine.  These  six  writers,  of  whose 
lives  scarcely  anything  is  known,  are — 

1.  jEliiis  SpartiaiittSf  to  whom  are  assigned  the  lives  of 
Hadrian,  -^lius  Yenis,  Didius  Julianus,  Septimius  Severus, 
Pescennius  Niger,  Caracalla,  and  Geta. 

2.  Vulcatiics  GaUicamis,  to  whom  the  life  of  Avidius  Cas- 
sius  is  ascribed. 

3.  Trehellius  Pollio,  whose  name  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
lives  of  Valerian,  of  the  two  Gallieni,  of  what  he  absurdly 
calls  the  thirty  tyrants,  and  of  Claudius. 

4.  Flavius  Vopisciis,  a  Syracusan,  who  wrote  the  lives  of 
Aurelian,  Tacitus,  Florianus,  Probus,  Firmus,  Saturninus, 
Proculus,  Bonosus,  Cams,  Numerianus,  and  Carinus.  This 
biographer  is  distinguished  for  his  love  of  tnith,  and  for  the 
manner  in  which  he  has  arranged  his  materials. 

5.  jEUus  LampridinSy  the  author  of  the  lives  of  Com- 
modus,  Diadumenus,  Elagabalus,  and  Alexander  Severus;  and 

6.  Julius  Capitolinu^j  to  whom  are  assigned  the  lives  of 
Antoninus  Pius,  M.  Aurelius,  L.  Verus,  Pertinax,  Albinus, 
Macrinus,  the  two  Maximini,  the  Gordiani,  and  Maximus 
and  Balbinus. 

We  know  nothing  about  the  time  when  this  collection  of 
imperial  biographies  was  made,  but  it  may,  as  some  have 
supposed,  have  been  put  together  by  some  scholar  at  Con- 
stantinople ;  nor  is  it  certain  whether  the  lives  ascribed  to 
one  author  may  not  belong  to  another.  What  is  common 
to  them  all  is  the  absence  of  historical  talent  and  judg- 
ment ;  they  are,  however,  desirous  to  tell  the  truth  where 
they  are  not  led  away  by  the  desire  to  flatter,  as  is  the  case 
with  Trebellius  Pollio.  Upon  their  style  and  language  they 
bestow  very  little  care ;  but  we  ought,  nevertheless,  to  be 
grateful  for  their  preservation,  as  on  many  matters  they  are 
our  sole  historical  authorities.*  -     

179.  Among  the  rhetoricians  and  grammarians  of  the  latter 

*  A  good  edition  of  the  Hldorla  Augusta  is  that  of  II.  Jordan  and 
F;  Eissenhardt:  Berlin,  1864,  2  vols.;  also  H.  Peter's  edition:  Leip- 
zig, 18C5,  2  vols. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


KONIUS   MARCELLUS. 


190 


half  of  the  thii'd  century  the  following  deserve  to  be  men- 
tioned : — 

1.  Aquila  Romanus,  by  whom  we  have  a  brief  and  super- 
ficial sketch,  Defiguris  sententiarum  et  elocuticyiium,  dedicated 
to  an  unknown  pensbn,  to  whom  the  author  promises  a  better 
and  more  complete  work  as  soon  as  he  has  the  time  for  it. 
His  language  is  harsh,  careless,  and  often  offends  against  the 
rules  of  correct  Latin.* 

2.  Juba,  a  grammarian  of  Mauretania,  who  composed  a 
work  on  metres,  consisting  of  at  least  eight  books,  in  which 
he  followed  Heliodorus  and  Csesius  Bassus.t 

3.  Marius  Plotius  Sacerdos,  who  must  have  lived  after 
Juba,  because  he  quotes  him,  also  wrote  on  metre;  but  in  his 
extant  work,  entitled  Ars  Grammatica,  in  three  books,  the 
third  only  treats  of  metres.  J 

4.  C.  Julius  Solinus,  a  grammarian  who  lived  about  the 
same  time  as  Sacerdos,  is  the  author  of  a  work  called  origin- 
ally Collectanea  Memorabiliunif  which  is  in  reality  a  treatise  on 
geography,  in  fifty-six  chapters,  based  on  the  geographical  por- 
tion of  Pliny's  Natural  History,  and  in  which  some  historical 
remarks  are  interspei^sed ;  but  what  the  compiler  has  added 
of  his  own  is  of  little  value.  His  style  is  rhetorical  and 
affected ;  but  it  appeai-s  nevertheless  to  have  been  very  popu- 
lar, and  an  edition  of  it  made  in  the  sixth  century  bears  the 
title  PolyhistoVy  under  which  it  still  exists.  || 

5.  Nonius  Marcellus,  probably  an  African,  who  lived  about 
the  end  of  the  third  century,  compiled  a  work  called  Compen- 
diosa  doctrina  per  litterasy  which  is  a  kind  of  dictionary  in 
nineteen  sections,  each  treating  of  a  separate  subject.  The 
work  is  put  together  without  any  system  or  order,  and  the 
author  has  made  great  use  of  Gellius  without  mentioning 
his  name;  throughout  he  displays  an  almost  incredible 
degi^ee  of  ignorance  or  carelessness,  thus,  e.g.,  in  one  passage 

*  TThe  work  is  printed  in  Ruhnken's  edition  of  Rutilius  Lupus, 
and  in  C.  Halm's  Ehetores  Latini  Minores :  Leipzig,  1863. 

t  What  remains  of  the  work  has  been  collected  by  Ten  Brink: 
Utrecht,  1854. 

X  See  Gaisf ord's  Scriptores  Eei  Metricce,  p.  242,  foil.,  and  Putschius' 
Gram.  Lot.,  p.  2623. 

II  The  best  edition  of  Solinus  is  that  of  Th.  Mommsen:  Berlin, 
1864. 


200  HISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

he  speaks  of  M.  Tullius  and  Cicero  as  two  different  persons ; 
but,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  work  is  of  considerable 
importance  to  ns,  on  account  of  the  many  quotations  from 
earlier  works  which  are  lost.* 

6.  Terentianus,  a  native  of  Mauretania,  who  probably  lived 
towards  the  end  of  the  third  century,  composed  in  his 
later  years  a  brief  treatise,  De  litteris,  syllaUs,  pedibus,  et 
metris,  in  verse,  and  addressed  it  to  his  son,  Bassinus,  and  his 
son-in-law,  Novatus.  It  consists  of  four  parts  or  chapters, 
the  last  of  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  an  imfinished  state. 
As  to  the  materials  of  the  work,  Terentianus  seems  to  be 
much  indebted  to  his  predecessors,  Caesius  Bassus  and  Juba ; 
but  the  skill  with  which  he  manages  the  various  metrical 
forms  is  truly  astonishing.! 

180.  Arnobius,  a  distinguished  rhetorician  of  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  was  born  about  a.d.  295  at  Sicca,  in  Numidia. 
He  had  already  acquired  great  reputation  in  his  profession 
when  he  became  a  convert  to  Christianity;  and  to  justify 
this  step  he  wrote  the  celebrated  work,  Adversus  nationes  (or 
^  gentes),  in  seven  books.  Otherwise  nothing  is  known  about 
'  him,  except  that  Lactantius  was  one  of  his  pupils,  which 
seems  to  have  been  at  the  time  when  both  were  still  pagans. 
The  work  is  mainly  apologetic,  and  polemical  against''  the 
believers  in  polytheism.  The  author  does  not  show  any 
deep  insight  into  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  seems  to 
have  written  his  work  at  the  time  when  the  impression  made 
upon  his  mind  by  Diocletian's  persecution  of  the  Christians 
was  still  fresh,  that  is  about  a.d.  304  or  305.  The  style  of 
the  work  is  thoroughly  rhetorical,  and  ttere  is  a  constant 
strivmg  after  effect  and  sensation.  The  language  is  hard, 
and  full  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  African  school.  The 
minuteness  with  which  he  enters  into  the  life  of  the  pagans 
brmgs  to  light  many  things  which,  but  for  hLs  work,  would 
be  unknown  to  us,  | 

1342'^^^  ^^^*  edition  is  that  of  F.  D.  Gerlach,  and  C.  L.  Roth:  Basle, 

t  The  best  edition  is  that  of  C.  Lachmann:  Berlin,  1836.     See  also 
Gaii8tord  3  Hephcestion,  I.,  p.  215,  foil. 

*!,*  J^®w<>rk  of  Arnobius  is  printed  in  some  of  the  collections  of 
the  Fathers ;  but  there  are  also  good  separate  editions  by  J.  C. 
OreUi:  Leipzig,  ISIG;  and  G.  F.  Hildebrand:  Halle,  1844. 


A.I).  14-600.] 


LACTANTIUS   FIRMIANUS. 


201 


181.  Lactantius  Firmianus,  probably  a  native  of  Italy, 
was  instructed  in  rhetoric  by  Arnobius.  Having  gained 
some  reputation  as  a  rhetorician  he  was  invited  to  go  to 
Nicomedia,  where  the  Emperor  Diocletian  was  then  residing; 
but  what  he  earned  there  as  a  teacher  of  Latin  and  rhetoric 
was  so  httle  that  he  was  often  in  want  of  the  barest  neces- 
saries of  life.  In  his  later  years  he  became  a  convert  to 
Christianity,  and  about  a.d.  312  we  meet  him  again  in  Gaul 
as  instructor  of  Crispus,  the  son  of  Constantine.  He  seems 
to  have  died  m  the  same  country  at  an  advanced  age. 

Lactantius    is    distinguished    above   all   other   Christian 
writers  m  Latin  for  the  purity  and  smoothness  of  his  style, 
which  is  formed  after  the  best  models  of  the  classical  a<Te 
especially  after  Cicero,  and  with  such  success  that  he  has' 
not  unjustly,  been  called  the  Christian  Cicero.     He  must 
have  been  a  man  of  a  kindly  and  grateful  disposition :  for 
even  after  his  conversion  he  showed  the  same  attachment  to 
those  to  whom  he  owed  his  mental  culture  as  before ;  and 
he  speaks  with  respect  of  the  great  pagan  writers  of  former 
times.     This  was  perhaps  the  reason  why  his  orthodoxy  was 
not  above  suspicion.     His   works   were   partly  rhetorical, 
partly  poetical,  but  principally  theological.     No  work  of  the 
hrst  class  has  come  down  to  us ;  but  a  poetical  production, 
called   Fhosmx,  probably  written  before  his  conversion,  is 
still  extant.     It  contains  a  description  of  the  wonderful  bird 
phoenix,  and  the  various  stories  connected  with  it  in  170 
elegiac  lines.*     His  theological  works  are—  ' 

1.  Imtitutionum  Dimiarum  libri  VIL,  containin^r  a  clear 
apologetic  exposition  of  the  Christian  doctrines.  Christianity 
IS  to  him  the  *'  summa  sapientia  et  justitia."  An  abridgment 
ot  the  same  work,  probably  made  by  the  author  himself, 
likev^ise  exists. 

2.  Be  Opificio  Dei,  is  a  popular  anthropology  from  a 
Christian  point  of  view,  in  which  he  describes  the  mental  as 
well  as  the  physical  constitution  of  man. 

3.  De  Ira  Dei,  a  similar  treatise  on  the  attribute  of  anger, 
which  he  considers  a  necessary  part  of  the  divine  character. 

4.^  De  Mortihus  Persecutorum.~Thi^  work  is  of  a  more 
passionate  character  than  the  others;  it  asserts  that  God, 
*  It  is  printed  in  Wernsdorf's  PotU^  Lat.  Min,  III.,  p.  298,  foil. 


202 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATURE  [PERIOD  V. 


although  permitting  the  cruelties  against  Christians,  will  yet 
in  the  end  visit  the  pei'secutoi's  with  condign  punishment.* 

182.  It  is  veiy  curious  that,  just  before  the  official  estab- 
lishment of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  empire,  there 
appeared  a  number  of  poems,  like  the  Phcenix  of  Lactantius, 
which,  with  a  remarkably  frank  naivete,  deal  with  ancient 
pagan  myths,  and  that,  too,  in  forms  which  are  generally 
correct.  Among  these  productions,  all  of  which  seem  to 
belong  to  the  time  of  Constantius  Chorus,  and  Constantine, 
we  reckon: — 

1.  A  small  epic  poem,  by  Reposianus,  on  the  "  Union  of 
Mars  and  Venus,"  in  182  hexameter  lines,  printed  in  Meyer's 
AntJiol.  Lat.j  p.  197. 

2.  Votum  Fortunce,  in  twenty-three  hexameter  lines,  in 
which  the  author  dedicates  the  image  of  his  father  to  Fortuna 
(Meyer,  Z.c,  p.  215). 

3.  Distichs  and  epigrams,  by  a  poet  Pentadius,  on  Hector, 
Narcissus,  Acis,  and  other  mythical  personages  (Meyer,  l.c.y 
p.  96). 

4.  A  letter  of  Dido  to  ^neas,  before  her  suicide,  in  150 
hexameter  lines,  by  an  unknown  author  (Wemsdorf,  Foet(Z 
Lai.  Min.  IV.,  p.  439). 

5.  A  speech  of  Achilles  on  hearing  the  trumpet  of  Diomede, 
in  eighty-nine  hexameter  lines  (Meyer,  I.e.,  p.  228). 

183.  Rhetoric  and  declamatory  oratory  had  long  been 
cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  empire;  but,  at  the  time  at 
which  we  have  now  anived,  it  flourished  nowhere  so  much 
as  in  Gaul,  where  eveiy  large  town  had  its  own  rhetorical 
school,  and  where  the  lively  temperament  of  the  people 
naturally  inclined  them  to  such  oratorical  exhibitions.  In 
fluency  and  correctness  of  style  the  Gallic  school  far  sur- 
passed that  of  Africa,  though  in  originality  of  thought  it 
was  inferior.  Owing  to  the  natural  disposition  of  the  Gauls 
themselves,  and  the  despotic  court  ceremonial  introduced  by 
Diocletian,  Gallic  oratory  displayed  itself  chiefly  in  pane- 
gyiics  on  the  reigning  sovereigns,  resembling  the  famous, 
panegyric  of  the  younger  Pliny,  but  imitating  in  style  the 

*  The  works  of  Lactantius  are  generally  printed  in  the  collec- 
tions of  the  Latin  Fathers;  the  best  is  that  of  0.  F.  Fritsche,  in 
Gersdorf,  Bibliotheca  Patruvi,  Vol.  X, 


A.n.  14-600.]       BtJRIjrO  TItE   FOURTH  CENTURY. 

speeches  of  Cicero.     We  still  possess  a  collection  of  six  pane- 
gyrics which  belong  to  this  and  a  somewhat  later  period. 

The  two  most  ancient  of  these  laudations,  delivered  by 
unknown  speakers  at  the  court  of  Treves,  are  in  praise  of 
Diocletian  and  his  colleagues,  and  belong  to  the  years  289 
and  291.  The  first  was  delivered  on  the  21st  of  April, 
the  birthday  of  Rome;  the  second  on  the  birthday  of  Maxi- 
mian;  in  it  the  speaker  dwells  most  on  the  emperor's  "  pietas" 
and  "  felicitas." 

The  four  other  panegyrics  are  the  productions  of  the 
rhetorician  Eiimenius  of  Augustodunum  (Autun),  who  lived 
about  A.D.  300,  and  aims  at  the  roundness  and  fulness  of 
Cicero's  style.  His  laudations  belong  to  the  years  296,  297, 
310,  and  311.  In  the  first,  which  was  delivered  before  the 
prseses  of  the  province,  the  orator  prays  for  the  restoration  of 
the  schools  in  his  native  city;  in  the  last  the  orator  thanks 
the  emperor  in  the  name  of  the  city  for  the  remission  of 
taxes  and  other  acts  of  kindness.  The  two  intermediate 
panegyrics  are  laudations  of  Constantius  Chlorus  and  his 
son,  the  Emperor  Constantino.* 

D.  Latin  Literature  during  the  Fourth  Century 

AFTER   CJHRISf]      "  '       ^ 

(From  the  Death  of  Diocletian,  a.d.  305,  to  the  Permanent 
Division  of  the  Empire,  a.d.  395). 

184.  The  two  great  events  in  Roman  history  during  this 
period  are  the  establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  religion 
of  the  empire,  and  the  raising  of  Byzantium,  under  the  name 
of  Constantinople,  to  the  rank  of  the  capital  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  empire.  Rome  preserved  her  ancient  institutions 
longer  than  it  would  have  been  possible  if  her  connection 
with  the  East  had  not  thus  been  dissolved;  and  Paganism  and 
Christianity,  down  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  existed 
at  Rome  side  by  side,  and  on  terms  of  equality  with  each  other. 
Those  who  still  adhered  to  their  ancient  belief  clung  to  it 
with  great  tenacity,  and  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  new 

*  These  panegyrics  have  been  well  edited  by  J.  H.  Arntzen: 
Utrecht,  1790-1795,  in  2  vols.,  which  were  reprinted  by  Valpv: 
London,  1838. 


204 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


A.D.  14-  600.] 


HERMOGENIANUS. 


205 


/ 


doctrines  were  virtually  contained  in  their  old  religion ;  but 
it  had  lost  its  hold  on  the  popular  mind ;  the  decay  which 
had  commenced  long  before  went  on  irresistibly,  and  Chris- 
tianity gained  the  victory;  but  this  very  victory  brought  to 
light  dissensions  and  divisions  among  the  Christians  them- 
selves, which  led  to  persecutions  of  one  sect  by  another.  The 
intellectual  life  of  the  time,  however,  showed  great  vigour 
in  these  feuds,  and  Christianity  during  this  century  produced 
its  greatest  and  ablest  champions;  but  we  still  look  in  vain 
for  originality  in  the  literary  productions,  for  all  are  based 
upon  the  works  of  earlier  times,  either  commenting  upon 
them  or  epitomising  them.  Rhetoric  still  continued  to  be 
cultivated  very  generally,  but  produced  nothing  really  great; 
grammarians  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  their  predecessors 
from  whom  they  copy  and  plagiarise ;  history  is  written  only 
in  epitomes  and  abridgments  of  earlier  works;  poetry  de- 
lights in  artificial  trifles  and  devices,  and  the  Christian  poets, 
finding  it  diflBcult  to  unite  the  ancient  forms  with  their  new 
ideas,  gradually  fell  into  the  tone  of  the  popular  language, 
and  it  is  then  that  we  meet  with  the  first  attempts  at 
rhyming. 

185.  The  Emperor  Constantlne  himself  (from  A.D.  306  to 
337)  was  not  without  literary  taste,  and  wrote  in  Latin 
memoirs  of  his  own  life,  of  which  a  few  fragments  still  exist; 
but  he  patronised  learning  and  literature  only  for  his  own 
dynastic  and  ambitious  purposes,  and  gladly  listened  to  the 
panegyrics  of  rhetoricians  who  extolled  his  virtues  and  ex- 
ploits. Two  of  such  panegyrics,  by  Eumenius,  have  already 
been  noticed;  but  some  othei*s  also  are  still  extant,  one  which 
was  delivered  by  an  anonymous  rhetorician,  in  A.D.  313,  and 
another  by  NazariuSy  in  a.d.  321.  (7.  Julius  Victor  occurs 
as  a  writer  on  rhetoric  in  the  time  of  Constantine,  and  his 
Ars  Bhetorica  is  still  extant,  and  printed  in  C.  Halm's  Rhetores 
Lai.  Minores,  p.  371,  foil. 

186.  During  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century  we  meet 
with  two  Christian  poets. 

1.  Puhliliua  Porphyrius  OptatianuSj  who,  in  a.d.  328,  sent 
to  Constantine  a  volume  of  laudatory  poems,  and  thereby 
obtained  his  recal  from  exile.  These  poems  are  still  extant, 
as  is  also  the  emperor's  acknowledgment,  and  the  letter  in 


which  Optatianus  thanked  him.  These  poems,  twenty-six 
in  number,  are  remarkable  only  for  their  fanciful  tricks  and 
devices;  they  consist  mostly  of  from  twenty  to  forty  hexa- 
meter lines,  each  containing  an  equal  number  of  letters,  and 
the  poems  are  made  to  form  a  square,  a  sp'inx,  or  an  organ.* 
2.  (7.  Vettius  Aquilius  JuvencuSy  a  Spanish  presbyter,  who 
translated  the  four  gospels  into  Latin  hexameter  verse;  and 
composed  some  other  poems  on  the  sacraments  in  the  same 
metre.  He  also  appears  to  have  translated,  if  not  the  whole, 
at  least  many  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  same  manner. 
In  his  phraseology  he  imitates  Vergil,  but  takes  great  liberties 
with  the  prosody.  A  complete  edition  of  his  remains,  many 
of  which  have  only  been  discovered  quite  recently,  does  not 
yet  exist. 

187.  The  last  jurists  whose  works  are  quoted  in  the  Digesta 
of  Justinian  belong  to  the  reign  of  Constantine;  but  they, 
like  other  writers,  were  generally  occupied  with  making  collec- 
tions or  epitomes  of  works  of  their  predecessors.    They  are : — 

1.  Aurelius  Arcadius  Charisius^  who  wrote  monographs,  De 
Officio  Prcefecti  Prcetorio,  Be  Munerihus  Civilibtis,  and  Be 
Testibus. 

2.  Hermogenianus^  who  wrote  Epitomce  Juris,  that  is,  a 
collection  of  imperial  constitutions,  in  three  parts,  extending 
from  A.D.  291  to  365.  This  collection  was  known  at  the  time 
by  the  name  of  Codex  HermogenianuSy  but  nothing  now 
remains  of  it,  except  what  is  quoted  in  the  Codex  of  Justinian. 

To  the  same  time  also  belongs  a  work  now  known  under 
the  name  of  Fragmenta  Vaticana,  a  collection  of  legal 
authorities  similar  to  that  afterwards  made  by  the  order  of 
Justinian.  It  contained  imperial  constitutions  and  extracts 
from  the  works  of  earlier  jurists,  and  seems  to  have  been 
drawn  up  for  private  use,  as  it  is  nowhere  referred  to.  We 
now  possess  only  a  small  portion  of  it,  which  was  discovered, 
in  1821,  by  A.  Mai,  in  a  palimpsest,  in  the  Vatican  libraiy, 
whence  the  name.f 

188.  The  sphere  of  grammatical  studies  had  become  more 

*  They  are  printed  in  Wemsdorf,  Poetce  Lat.  Min.  II.,  p.  365, 
foil.;  see  also  Meyer,  Anthol  Lat.^  p.  94,  foil. 

t  It  has  since  been  published  several  times,  most  recently  in 
Huschke's  JurisprudeniiGS  Antejustiniance  quae  supersunt,  p.  591,  foil. 


206 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


\ 


and  more  narrowed  to  the  mere  wants  of  the  schoolroom; 
historical  investigation  and  even  the  collecting  of  learned 
materials  were  neglected.  Cominiaiius,  who  is  called  a  most 
eloquent  grammarian,  seems  to  have  written  a  grammar  of 
this  humble  kind,  which  itself  is  one  of  the  principal  autho- 
rities referred  to  by  Charisius.  Albinus  wrote  on  metres  in 
hexameter  verse,  in  the  manner  of  Terentianus;  two  hexa- 
meter lines  only  are  extant  of  the  work.  AsmaniuSj  a  person 
who,  to  judge  from  his  name,  was  perhaps  of  Syrian  origin, 
likewise  wrote  on  metres;  and  EuanthiuSy  who  is  called  a  most 
erudite  grammarian,  wrote  a  commentary  on  Terence,  and 
died  at  Constantinople,  a.d.  361. 

189.   Finnicus    Maternus,  who   lived  in  the  reign  of 
Constantine,  is  the  author  of  a  very  remarkable  work,  called 
Matheseos  lihri,  in  eight  books.    Maternus,  a  native  of  Sicily, 
was  originally  a  pleader  in  law  courts,  but  having  become 
disgusted  with  his  profession,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  astrology.     The  work  he  afterwards  wrote  on  that 
subject  is  dedicated  to  the  proconsul  Mavortius  Julianus, 
AN    and  was  not  completed  till  a.d.  354.     It  contains  a  complete 
I  r/'C^stem  of  astrology,  in  accordance  with  the  mystic  views  of 
U(      the  Neo-Platonists.     Maternus,  under  the  influence  of  super- 
stition, is  thoroughly  in  earnest  in  his  work ;  he  tries  to  give 
to  his  science  an  ethical  basis,  and  propounds  his  doctrines 
with  a  kind  of  priestly  solenmity.     He  is  evidently  a  pagan, 
although  he  sometimes  speaks  as  if  he  were  a  believer  in  one 
God.* 

About  the  same  time  that  Firmicus  Maternus  -wrote  his 
book  on  astrology,  a  Christian  of  the  same  name  composed 
a  work,  De  Errore  Profanarum  Heligionum,  addressed  to 
Constantine's  sons,  Constantius  and  Constans,  whom  he 
passionately  exhorts  to  destroy  paganism.  The  character  of 
this  work  is  so  different  from  that  of  the  astrologer,  and  the 
sentmients  they  contain  are  so  diametrically  opposed,  that 
the  two  works  cannot  possibly  be  regai'ded  as  the  productions 
of  the  same  man;  but  it  is  possible  that  they  may  have  been 
members  of  the  same  family.  The  tone  of  the  Chris tia^jwork 
ib  that  common  to  all  the  Christian  ig]f  i1  ngr? ti  t  -rrrTTrrT  but 

/    *  The  latest  edition  of  this  work  is  that  of  N.  Pnickner;  Basel, 
V1533  and  1551. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


C.   MARIUS  VICT 


r(  RINUS/  ' 


of  this  perioj 


he  enters  more  minutely  into  the  v:  ews  of  the^astern  pagans 
than  his  predecessors  had  done.  [He  also  refers  more  fre- 
quently to  passages  of  the  BiblJB,  especially  of  the  Old 
Testament;  he  quotes  these  passages  in  a  Latin  translation, 
which  seems  to  have  been  made  ih  Africa,  in  the  course  ot 
the  second  centuiy  after  Christ,  'f he  style  is  very  rhetorical 
and  pathetic,  and  full  of  exclamations.  Some  lea^ 
work  are  wanting.* 

190.  The  prevailing  philosoph} 
the  Neo-Platonists,  which  had  it^  chief  seat  at' A*fee!S7I)ut 
had  ltS5  Representatives  also^t  Ribme,  such  as  the  astrologer 
Maternus.  Its  professors  regarded  Neo-Platonism  as  the 
best  means  to  counteract  Chr^anity.  The  Romans  gener- 
ally were  too  sober-minded  to  embrace  such  fanciful  views, 
and  remained  in  philosophy  eclectics  as  they  had  been  ever 
since  the  days  of  Cicero.  Besides  Maternus,  the  only  Neo- 
Platonic  philosopher  we  know  of  at  Rome  was  C.  Marlus 
Victorinus,  who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. 
He  was  a  native  of  Africa,  and  a  distinguished  rhetorician 
and  grammarian,  taught  at  Rome,  and  at  a  very  advanced 
age  became  a  Christian.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of 
high  mental  culture,  and  in  his  earlier  years  wrote  on  rhetoric, 
philosophy,  and  metres;  but  after  his  conversion  he  com- 
posed commentaries  on  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  other 
works  in  d<^ence  of  the  orthodox  faith  against  the  Arians  and 
M^anicljaeans.     Under  his  name  we  still  possess 

,  Ji^X^  Grammatica,  De  Orthographia  et  de  Metrica  Ratiwie. 
><^-ln  the  part   treating   of  metres  he  follows   the  Greek 
Hephsestion,  Varro,  and  Csesius  Bassus.t 

2.  There  are  three  trivial  treatises  which  have  come  down 

^o  us  under  his  name,  and  are  in  a  very  corrupt  state,  viz., 
/  De  re  Granwiatica,  De  Carmine  Heroico^  and  De-1^atione 
metrorum  (printed  in  Putschius*  Gram.  Lat.,  p.  1937,  foil.). 
They  seem  to  be  the  productions  of  three  difierent  writers, 
and  to  have  been  assigned  to  Marius  Victorinus  without 
sufficient  reason. 

*  The  best  edition  of  this  work  is  that  of  C.  Bursian:  Leipzig, 
1856;  it  is  also  printed  in  C.  Halm's  edition  of  Minucius  Fehx. 

t  The  best  edition  of  this  treatise  is  that  in  Gaisford's  Scriptores 
Jiei  Metiicce  Latini, 


c> 


208 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN   LITERATURE  [PERIOD  V. 


3.  A  very  diffuse  and  almost  useless  commentary-  on 
Cicero's  Rhetorica;  it  may  be  the  work  of  a  Victorinus,  but 
certainly  not  of  the  one  we  are  here  speaking  of.  (It  is 
printed  in  Orelli's  edition  of  Cicero,  Vol.  V.,  p.  1,  foil.) 

His  theological  writings  are  to  some  extent  lost,  but  we 
still  possess  his  work,  De  Trinitate  Contra  Arium  libri  IV, 
Some  other  works  also  bear  his  name,  such  as  De  Generatione 
Verbi  Divini  Opusculum,  Contra  duo  Principia  Manichceorum, 
et  de  Vera  Came  Christie  but  whether  they  are  really  his  we 
cannot  determine.  (They  are  printed  in  the  collections  of 
the  Fathers.)  There  are,  lastly,  some  Christian  poems  which 
bear  his  name,  but  their  authorship  is  equally  uncertain. 
(They  are  printed  in  G.  Fabricius,  Poetce  Christani,  and  in 
A.  Rivinus,  Sanctce  Beliqicice  Victorinorum :  Gotha,  1652.) 

191.  -Villus  Donatus.— Of  his  life  nothing  is  known  be- 
yond the  fact  that  Hieronymus  was  one  of  his  pupils;  he 
was  a  learned  rhetorician  and  grammarian,  and  lived  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.     He  is  the  author  of: — 

1.  Ars  Grammatical  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  two 
forms,  a  shorter  one  {Ars  Minor) ^  which  treats  only  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  and  a  larger  one,  in  three  books,  both  of 
which  are  printed  in  Putschius  and  Keil's  collections  of 
Latin  grammarians.  In  later  times  the  grammar  of  Donatus 
appears  to  have  been  very  popular,  although  in  some  respects 
it  is  inferior  to  those  of  Charisius  and  Diomedes,  for  it  was 
repeatedly  commented  upon  and  epitomised,  as  e.g.,  by 
Servius,  Pompeius,  and  Julianus. 

2.  A  valuable  commentary  on  Terence's  comedies;  unfortu- 
nately that  on  the  Ileautontimorumenos  is  now  lost.  These 
commentaries,  however,  are  not  preserved  in  their  original 
form,  they  appear  rather  to  be  a  compilation  from  three 
different  commentaries,  the  best  part  of  which  is  no  doubt 
the  production  of  Donatus. 

3.  A  commentary  on  Vergil,  which  is  lost. 

192.  To  the  same  period  seems  to  belong  Palladius  Ruti- 
lius  Taurus  ^milianus,  who  is  known  to  us  only  as  the 
author  of  a  work,  De  Re  Rustica,  in  fourteen  books,  in  which, 
without  any  |/ii.LuiiAiuu  LU  sL^'le,  he  briefly  repeats  the  teach- 
ings of  his  predecessors  and  of  his  own  experience.  The  fii-st 
book  contains  a  general  introduction,  the  next  twelve  are  a 


A.D.  14-600.]       DURING   THE  FOURTH   CENTURY. 


209 


kind  of  agricultural  calendar,  giving  rules  for  every  month 
of  the  year,  and  the  fourteenth  book,  dedicated  to  one  Pasi- 
philus,  is  composed  in  elegiacs.  The  work  is  printed  in  J. 
M.  Gesner's  collection  of  the  Scriptores  Rei  Rustical. 

193.  To  this  century  also  belong  the  different  Itineraries, 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  and  are  collected  in  Wesseling'a 
Vetera  Romamrum  Itiiieraria:  Amsterdam,  1735.  They 
are : — 

1.  Two  Itineraria  Antonini,  giving  the  routes  by  land 
and  by  sea  through  the  provinces  of  the  empire.  The  first 
foundation  seems  to  have  been  laid  in  the  time  of  Caracalla; 
but  additions  were  constantly  made,  until  they  assumed  the 
form  in  which  we  now  have  them,  and  which  was  probably 
published  in  the  time  of  Diocletian.        >. 

2.  Itinerarium  Burdigaleme  or  HierJsolymitanuin^  which 
belongs  to  a.d.  333,  ^nd  describes  the  ifeute  from  Burdigala 
(Bordeaux),  to  Jeru^lem;  it  was  apparently  drawn  up  for 
pilgrims  to  Jerusalem,  x 

3.  Itinerarium  Alexahdri. — In  a.d.  340,  when  Constantius 
was  preparing  his  campaign  against  Persia,  some  one  drew 
up  the  route  taken  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  eastern 
expedition  for  the  guidance  of  the  emperor.  It  is  mainly 
based  upon  the  account  given  by  Arrian  in  his  Anabasis; 
but  the  last  part  is  lost. 

There  are  also  two  topographical  works  belonging  to  this 
period,  viz.,  two  lists  of  the  Regiones  urhis  Romce,  into  which 
Augustus  had  divided  the  city.  One  of  these  probably  be- 
longs to  A.D.  334,  and  the  other  to  a.d.  357.  The  former 
generally  beai^  the  title  of  Notitia  Regionu7n,  the  latter  that 
of  Curiosum.  Both  have  come  down  to  us  in  a  greatly  inter- 
polated condition,  and  have  been  assigned,  without  any 
ostensible  reason,  to  two  different  authors,  P.  Victor  and 
Sex.  Rufus. 

Lastly,  we  have  to  notice  a  work  of  the  very  greatest 
historical  importance,  viz.,  a  description  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
with  historical  and  antiquarian  notes,  forming  a  sort  of 
chronicle  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  about  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century.  Parts  of  this  work  were  known  before, 
but  valuable  additions  have  recently  been  made  from  manu- 
scripts found  at  Vienna  and  Brussels,  and  the  whole,  as  far 

0 


210 


it  . 


HISTORY  OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


J 


as  it  is  now  known,  has  been  edited  by  Th.  Mommsen,  in 
1850.  '^ 

194.  History  continued  to  be  written  in  the  form  of  short 
biographies,  or  such  brief  epitomes  as  satisfied  men  in  an  age 
that  had  neither  time  nor  inclination  to  read  the  great  works 
of  former  times,  which,  in  consequenca,^ere  more  and  more 
dispensed  with  and  forgotten.  Historical  writers  of  this 
kind  were — 

1.  Sex.  Aurelius  Victor,  who  wrote  brief  biographies  of 
the  emperors  {Ccesares),  from  Augustus  to  Constantius.  At 
a  later  period  a  sort  of  biogi'aphical  history  of  the  republic, 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  reign  of  Augustus,  was  added, 
under  the  title  of  De  viris  illustribits.  In  order  to  make 
the  work  still  more  complete,  somebody  added  at  the  begin- 
ning twenty-three  chapters,  entitled  Origo  populi  Romania 
which,  however,  are  of  no  historical  value  whatever.  The  part 
De  CcesaribuSf  brief  as  it  is,  was  again  epitomised  by  some 
later  writer,  and  continued  to  the  death  of  Theodosius.  All 
these  writings  are  still  extant.  Aurelius  Victor  himself,  in 
his  Ccesares,  evidently  availed  himself  of  the  best  autho- 
rities; and  his  biographies  become  more  minute  as  he 
approaches  his  own  time.  That  he  was  a  pagan  is  clear  from 
the  fact  that  he  attaches  much  impoi-tance  to  prodigies.  The 
part  De  viris  illustrihus  does  not  limit  itself  to  Roman 
history,  but  includes  Pyrrhus,  Hannibal,  and  even  Cleopatra; 
it  is  mainly  based  on  Cornelius  Nepos,  Florus,  and  Suetonius, 
and  is  composed  in  plain  and  simple  language.  In  the  epi- 
tome of  the  lives  of  the  emperors  some  additions  are  made 
from  other  sources  than  Aurelius  Victor,  and  the  style  is 
very  poor.  The  Origo  populi  Roinani  is  a  miserable  pre- 
tentious production  of  some  sciolist  of  the  fifth  century.* 

2.  Eutropius,  a  contemporary  of  the  Emperor  Valens  (a.d. 
364-378),  compiled  a  brief  history  of  Rome,  from  the  earliest 
times  to  a.d.  364, under  the  title BreviariumHistorice  Romance^ 
dedicated  to  the  Emperor  Valens.  This  little  work  is  composed 
with  great  judgment  and  impartiality,  and  wi'itten  in  very 
simple  language ;  in  consequence  of  which  it  soon  became  a 

*  The  beat  edition  of  these  works,  which  all  go  by  the  name  of 
Aurelius  Victor,  is  thj^t  of  Fr.  Schroter:  Leipzig,  1829-1831,  in 
2  volg. 


A.D.  14-GOO.] 


JULIUS   OBSEQUENS. 


211 


popular  school-book,  and  was  even  translated  into  Greek 
A  considerable  portion  of  this  translation,  which  is  not  free 
from  misunderstandings,  stUl  exists,  and  is  printed  in  some 
ot  the  earlier  editions  of  Eutropius.* 

3.  Rufus  Festus  composed  a  similar  epitome  of  Roman 
histmy,  which  is  still  extant,  and  is  likewise  dedicated  to 
the  Emperor  Valens.  Its  title  is  Breviarium  rerum  gestarum 
popuh  Romani;  but  it  is  much  poorer  than  the  work  of 
Eutropius,  together  with  which  it  is  often  printed.! 

4.  Julius  Obsequens,  probably  belonging  to  the  latter  half 
ot  the  fourth  century,  is  known  to  us  only  as  the  author  of 
a  collection  of  prodigies  {De  Prodigiis),  recorded  in  Livy, 
from  the  year  B.C.  249  to  12.  These  extracts,  however,  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  taken  from  the  original  work,  but 
from  some  epitome  of  Livy.  The  author  is  of  course  a 
pagan,  attachmg  much  importance  to  prodigies.  It  is  often 
printed  together  with  the  work  of  Valerius  Maximus.+ 

195.  Rhetoric  continued  to  flourish,  especially  in  Gaul,  and 
we  know  the  names  of  several  eminent  orators  or  rhetoricians 
but  the  only  speech  of  the  time  that  ha^  come  down  to  us  is 
one  delivered  on  the  1st  of  January,  a.d.  362,  by  Cluudius 
Mariiertmus,  who  therein  thanks  the  Emperor  Julian  for 
having  raised  him  to  the  consulshi]).  The  speech  is  interest- 
ing because  the  author  gives  us  a  pretty  correct  description 
ot  the  character  of  Julian,  both  as  a  man  and  as  a  ruler  It 
IS  printed  m  the  collections  of  the  panegyrists. 

The   Emperor  Julian   himself  was   distinguished   as   an 
orator  and  an  author;  but  all  his  works  are  written  in  Greek 
and  cannot  be  discussed  here.  ' 

196.  The  two  best  known  grammarians  of  this  period  are 
Charisius  and  Diomedes,  who,  although  they  wrote  indepen- 
dently of  each  other,  yet  present  such  striking  resemblances 
as  might  lead  to  the  belief  that  they  had  copied  each  other  • 
but  a  closer  examination  shows  that  they  both  copied  the 
same  authorities.  i  « 

1.  Plavius  Sosipater  Charisius,  probably  a  native  of 


1869. 


The  best  edition  of  Eutropius  is  that  of  Fr.  Eissenhardt:  Berlin, 


t  A  good  separate  edition  is  that  of  R.  Mecenate:  Rome,  1829 
H.  Ihere  is  a  good  separate  edition  of  it  by  0.  Jahn:  Leipzig,  1853. 


212 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


D.   MAGNtJS  AtJSOJfltJS. 


213 


,tr  1 


Africa,  lived  as  a  teacher  at  Rome,  and  wrote  an  Ars  gram- 
matica,  in  five  books,  for  the  use  of  his  son.  The  greater  pai-t 
of  it  is  still  extant,  and  from  it  we  see  that  he  made  exten- 
sive  use  of  the  works  of  Julius  Romanus,  Oominianus,  and 
Palsemon,  and  often  copios  them  verbatim.  Where  his 
authorities  disagree  he  rarely  ventures  to  express  his  own 
opinion.  The  chief  value,  therefore,  of  his  grammar  consists 
in  those  parts  which  are  borrowed  from  earlier  grammarians 
whose  works  are  lost.  What  remains  of  Charisius'  gmmmar 
is  printed  in  Putschius  and  in  H.  Keil's  Gram.  Lat,  Vol.  I. 
Extracts  from  the  work  were  made  in  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century,  which  likewise  still  exist,  and  by  means  of  which 
some  of  the  gaps  in  the  original  may  be  fiUed  up.  They  are 
also  contained  in  the  collection  of  Keil. 

2.  Diomedes'  work  is  likewise  called  Ars  grammatua,  m 
three  books,  and  is  dedicated  to  one  Athanasius.  Diomedes 
followed  other  authorities  besides  those  which  Charisius  used, 
e.g.,  Valerius  Probus  and  Terentianus.  Otherwise  he  stands 
very  much  on  a  line  with  Charisius,  the  chief  interest  con- 
sisting in  what  he,  often  very  carelessly,  copied  from  othei-s 

(see  Keil,  I.e.). 

197.  After  a  long  interval  we  at  last,  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourth  centuiy,  meet  with  a  poet  of  decided  talent, 
Bufius  Festus  Avienus;  he  was  proconsul  of  Africa  m 
A.D.  366,  and  of  Achaia  in  a.d.  372.  His  native  plaxje  was 
Volsinii,  in  Etruria;  but,  when  not  abroad,  he  seems  to  have 
lived  at  Rome,  where  he  became  the  father  of  a  numerous 
family.  He  evidently  aimed  at,  and  was  capable  of  great 
things ;  but  the  influence  of  the  times  was  too  powerful,  and 
he  had  to  yield  to  it.  His  poems  are  chiefly  of  a  didactic 
character;  but  he  always  relieves  the  dryness  of  his  subjects 
by  flashes  of  real  genius.     His  works  are — 

1.  A  translation  of  Ai-atus'  Phcenomefiia,  in  hexameters,  in 
which  he  tries  to  surpass  his  predecessors,  partly  by  gi-eater 
fidelity  to  his  original,  and  partly  by  the  insertion  of  interest- 
ing passages  from  other  philosophers  and  astronomers.  The 
work  is  printed  in  the  collection  of  Aratea. 

2.  Orhis  t&rrce,  or  Descriptio  orbis  terrcB,  in  1494  hexa- 
meters, in  imitation  of  the  Greek  nepi-nyrjoig  of  Dionysius, 
whom,  however,  he  does  not  name.      He  has  made  some 


learned  additions,  and  surpasses  the  original  by  the  liveli- 
ness  of  his   descriptions.      It  is   printed   in  Wernsdorf's 

'oet.  Lat.  Min.  V.,  p.  527,  foil. 

^^-Qra  Maritima,  in  iambic  trimeters,  of  which  only  a 
fragment  of  703  lines  is  now  extant.  In  it  he  describes  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to 
Massilia.  Even  this  fragment  is  disfigured  by  gaps  and  many 
corrupt  readings.  In  the  complete  work  Avienus  had 
described  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  Euxine,  and 
the  Caspian.  The  poem  was  dedicated  to  one  Probus,  and 
many  authorities  are  referred  to  in  it.  The  style  is  fluent, 
but  the  language  is  not  free  from  archaisms  and  strange 
innovations.     It  is  printed  in  Wemsdorf,  V.,  p.  1165,  foil. 

4.  Avienus  is  said  to  have  transcribed  the  whole  of  Livy 
and  Vergil  in  iambics ;  but  not  a  trace  of  this  stupendous 
work  now  exists. 

5.  A  number  of  small  original  poems  in  hexameters,  among 
which  there  is  one  addressed  to  Flavianus  Myrmecius,  a 
playful  composition,  in  which  he  asks  his  friend  to  send  him 
some  pomegranates  (printed  in  H.  Meyer's  Anthol.  Lat., 
p.  108). 

198.  Another  poet  of  considerable  merit,  who  flourished 
about  the  same  time,  is  D.  Magnus  Ausonius.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  an  eminent  physician  at  Burdigala  (Bordeaux); 
he  must  have  been  bom  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  lived  until  about  a.d.  390.  At  the  age 
of  thirty  he  established  himself  as  a  teacher  of  grammar  in 
his  native  city;  but  afterwards  devoted  himself  more  to 
rhetoric.  About  a.d.  365  the  Emperor  Valentinian  invited 
him  to  become  the  instructor  of  his  son  Gratian,  whom  he 
afterwards  accompanied  on  his  expedition  into  Germany. 
Valentinian  further  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a  comes  (count), 
and  made  him  quaestor  sacri  palatii;  Gratian  further  con- 
ferred upon  him  other  honours,  and,  in  a.d.  378,  gave  him  the 
praefectura  Galliarum,  to  which,  in  the  year  following,  the 
honour  of  the  consulship  was  added.  At  this  time  he  was 
residing  at  Treves,  where  he  delivered  an  oration  thanking 
the  emperor  for  the  distinction  conferred  upon  him.  This 
speech,  which  is  still  extant,  is  full  of  the  usual  rhetorical 
flatteries  towards  Gratian,  who  was  then  staying  at  Sirmium. 


214  HISTORY  05"   LAtm  LITERATURE.  [pERIOD  V. 

Ausonius  also  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius; 
but  his  political  career  seems  to  have  come  to  an  end  with 
the  death  of  Gratian  (a.d.   383),  after  which  he  returned 
to  Burdigala,  and  devoted  himself  with  great  zeal  to  the 
cultivation  of  literature.     Ausonius  was  a  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity j  but  whether  he  took  this  step  at  the  time  when  he 
was  summoned  to  the  court  as  tutor  to  Gratian,  or  earlier,  is 
unknown.     But  at  all  events  Christianity  does  not  appear 
to  have  taken  deep  root  in  him,  for  he  is  evidently  more  at 
home  in  the  ancient  Roman  classics  than  in  the  Bible,  and 
had  not  got  rid  of  many  of  his  pagan  ideas.     Some  of  his 
many  writings  are  lost,  such  as  his  Fasti  ah  urhe  condita 
usque  ad  siium  coTisulatum,  but  four  epigrams,  which  he  wrote 
as  introductions  to  the  several  parts  of  this  work,  still  exist; 
as  also  his  Ajyologi  jEsopi.      The  only  prose  composition 
that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the  above-mentioned  oration, 
delivered  at  Treves ;  all  his  other  productions  are  in  verse, 
which,  although  their  poetical  merits  are  small,  are  excellent 
in  point  of  form,  and  contain  much  valuable  information, 
for  Ausonius  possessed   very  extensive  knowledge  and  a 
powerful  memory.     He  contrives  to  make  his  productions 
attractive,  however  dry  his'  subject  may  be.      Kia  versifi- 
cation, though  on  the  whole  correct,  is  not  free  from  some 
serious  faults.     His  extant  works  are — 

1.  A  collection  of  146  epigrams,  mostly  in  the  elegiac 
metre ;  but  some  are  in  hexameters  or  iambics.  A  few  of 
them  are  written  in  Greek,  and  others  are  only  translations 
from  the  Greek.  To  these  are  added  the  four  epigrams  which 
he  wrote  as  introductions  to  his  Fasti, 

2.  Ephemeris,  a  poem  on  the  divisions  of  the  day,  in  vari- 
ous  metres";     There  is  a  considerable  gap  in  the  middle. 

3.  Parentalia,  consisting  of  thirty  poems,  mostly  in  elegiacs, 
on  the  deaths  of  relations ;  most  of  them  were  written  after 
his  consulship,  and  some  of  them  are  remarkable  for  their 
warmth  of  feeling. 

4.  Commemoratio  professorum  BurdigalensiuTrif  consists  of 
thirty-six  poems  on  professors  who  had  taught  at  Burdigala, 
nineteen  of  whom  were  natives  of  the  place,  the  remaining 
seventeen  only  resided  and  taught  there. 

5.  Fpitaphia,  twenty-six  epitaphs  on  heroes  distinguished 


/.t).  14-600.] 


D.    MAGNUS  AUSONIUS. 


^15 


in  the  Trojan  war,  to  which  are  added  eleven  on  other  per- 
sons, partly  mythical  and  partly  historical. 

6.  Ccesares,  addressed  to  his  son,  Hesperius,  consists  of 
four  lines  on  each  of  the  first  twelve  emperors,  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memoiy;  then  follow  similar  Versus  Memonales 
on  the  subsequent  emperors,  down  to  Ausonius'  own  time, 
but  we  possess  the  verses  only  down  to  Elagabalus. 

7.  Ordo  nohilium  urbiunif  in  fourteen  pieces,  on  seventeen 
cities,  in  hexameters,  must  have  been  written  after  the  death 
of  Maximus,  a.d.  388. 

8.  Ludus  SeptecB  Sapientu^,  a  kind  of  puppet-show,  in 
which,  after  a  brief  prologue  and  a  "  ludius,"  the  seven  wise 
men  come  forward  and  say  what  they  have  to  say.  At  the 
end  a  call  is  made  for  applause,  as  in  a  comedy.  Solon  is 
the  most  talkative  among  them.  After  these  scenes  there 
follow — 

9.  Sententice  of  the  same  seven  wise  men,  each  occupying 
seven  lines  in  different  metres.  It  is,  however,  now  com- 
monly believed  that  these  Sententice  are  not  the  work  of 
Ausonius. 

10.  Idylliaj  a  number  of  twenty  poems,  mostly  in  hexa- 
meters or  elegiacs,  and  sometimes  with  an  introduction  in 
prose.  They  are  mostly  somewhat  pedantic  fancies,  as  on 
the  number  three,  on  the  twelve  labours  of  Hercules,  on  the 
nine  Muses  and  their  functions,  etc.  The  most  celebrated  of 
these  poems  is  No.  10,  entitled  Mosella,  describing  a  journey 
up  the  Moselle  as  far  as  Treves.  It  consists  of  403  hexa- 
meters, and  was  written  at  Treves  in  a.d.  370.  It  is  in 
many  respects  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  productions  of 
Ausonius  :  it  shows  great  appreciation  of  the  beauties  of 
nature,  and  contains  several  episodes,  as  on  the  fishes  of  the 
Moselle,  on  fishing,  on  architects  and  their  works.* 

11.  Eclogariumj  verses  on  all  kinds  of  astronomical  sub- 
jects, on  the  names  of  the  stars,  the  days  of  the  week,  Roiiian 
festivals,  Greek  games,  etc. 

12.  Epistolce,  twenty-five  in  number,  are  mostly  playful 
letters  written  after  Ansonius'  consulship;  one  of  them  is 
written  in  prose,  others  are  entirely  in  verse,  and  others 

*  A  good  separate  edition  of  this  poem  was  published  by  Ei 
Booking:  Bonn,  1845. 


216 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  V. 


again  only  partly  so.    A  few  among  them  belong  to  an  earlier 
period  of  the  poet's  life.* 

199.  To  this  period  we  must  probably  assign  the  Latin 
translation  of  the  strange  work  of  the  so-called  Dictys  Cre- 
tensiSf  who  was  believed  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war,  and  to  have  kept  a  diary  of  the  principal  events 
of  the  war.  The  Latin  translation  of  this  extraordinary  pro- 
duction, no  doubt  a  forgery  of  some  Alexandrian  gi*ammarian, 
is  ascribed  to  one  Q.  Septimius,  and  contains  the  history  of 
the  Trojan  war,  from  the  birth  of  Paris  down  to  the  death 
of  Ulysses.  There  existed  a  similar  work  under  the  name 
of  Dares  Fhrygius,  which  was  likewise  translated  into  Latin, 
and  purporting  to  be  rendered  into  Latin  by  Cornelius  Nepos. 
Both  of  these  works  must  be  regarded  as  forgeries,  but  they 
nevertheless  became  extremely  popular  both  in  the  east  and 
in  the  west,  and  have  furnished  to  the  middle  ages  the  sub- 
jects for  the  legends  about  the  Trojan  knights.  The  two 
Latin  translations  are  generally  printed  together.! 

Another  translation  from  the  Greek  likewise  belongs  to 
this  time,  viz.,  a  Latin  translation  of  Josephus'  history  of 
the  Jewish  war,  which  for  a  long  time  was  regarded  as  the 
production  of  Hegesippus,  but  is  probably  the  work  of 
AmhrosiuSy  to  whom  in  some  MSS.  it  is  actually  ascribed. 
Several  passages  show  that  the  translation  must  have  been 
made  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  The  translator, 
who  was  a  Christian,  has  not  contented  himself  with  simply 
rendering  the  Greek  into  Latin,  but  has  sometimes  omitted 
passages,  sometimes  made  additions  from  Latin  authors,  and 
has  given  to  the  whole  the  character  of  a  Christian  work. 
It  is  printed  in  Bolandi,  Blbl.  Pair.  Vol.  VIL 

There  are  some  other  translations  from  the  Greek  belong- 
ing to  this  time,  but  none  is  of  more  interest  than  a  Latin 
version  of  the  Bible  made  before  that  of  Hieronymus,  and  in 
the  vulgar  dialect  of  Italy.  Portions  of  it  were  published  in 
London,  in  1868,  from  an  Ashbumham  MS.  Other  frag- 
ments, perhaps  of  the   same   translation,  likewise   in  the 

*  The  BIpont  edition  of  Ausonius  contains  all  his  extant  works  in 
1  vol. 

t  The  best  edition  of  these  works  is  that  of  A.  Dederich :  Bonn, 
1832  and  1837. 


A.D.  14-GOO]. 


Q.  AURELIUS  SYMMACHUS. 


217 


lingua  vulgaris,  have  been  edited  by  E.  Ranke :  Marburg, 
1856. 

200.  We  cannot  here  discuss  the  many  theological  and 
controversial  writings  which  were  called  forth  about  this 
time  by  the  Arian  heresy^  but,  o.c^r\^^y^,  nn,»  r.or^or^Va  f^  ^^^^ 
productions"  of  CHWSIilan  poetiy.  The  singing  of  hymns  of 
praise  and  thanksgiving  had  been  customary  in  the  church 
from  early  times,  but  the  most  ancient  lyric  poetry  of  this 
kind  is  that  of  DamasuSy  who  became  Bishop  of  Home  a.d. 
366,  and  died  a.d.  384,  at  the  age  of  nearly  80.  Most  of  hia 
poems  are  in  hexameter,  and  in  them  we  already  see  a  strong 
partiality  for  rhyme;  but  prosody  is  little  attended  to.  It 
is  remarkable  that  in  thirty-seven  poems  Amasus  mentions 
his  own  name  no  less  than  twenty-seven  times.  In  prose 
we  possess  by  him  only  a  collection  of  epistles,  which,  together 
with  his  poetical  works,  are  printed  in  Gallandi,  Biblioth. 
PatruMf  Vol.  VI.;  see  also  Maittaire,  Ojiera  Veterum  Poet, 
Lat.:  London,  1713,  in  2  vols. 

201.  During  the  last  twenty  years  of  the  fourth  century 
the  empire  had  to  defend  itself  on  all  sides  against  foreign 
enemies,  and  in  the  interior  against  usui-pers.  Theodosius 
(from  A.D.  379  to  395),  in  his  internal  administration  made 
every  effort  on  the  one  hand  to  suppress  paganism  and  the 
Arian  heresy;  and  on  the  other  to  establish  the  orthodoxy 
defined  by  the  Nicsean  council.  In  these  efforts  he  was,  on 
the  whole,  successful,  and  polytheism  became  extinct,  except 
in  a  few  families  of  rank,  which  still  clung  to  the  ancient 
literature,  and  through  it  to  the  ancient  religion.  Literature, 
therefore,  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three  illustrious  names, 
is  henceforth  represented  by  Christians. 

One  of  the  few  pagan  writers  whom  we  have  still  to  notice 
is  Q.  Aurelius  Symmachus,  son  of  L.  Aurelius  Symmachus 
(of  whom  five  epigrams  are  still  extant,  printed  in  Meyer's 
Anthology,  p.  106,  foil.).  He  must  have  been  bom  about  a.d. 
350,  and  certainly  did  not  die  before  a.d.  420.  He  occupied 
a  very  prominent  position  in  the  empire,  and  notwithstand- 
ing his  attachment  to  the  pagan  religion  rose  to  the  highest 
honours,  even  to  the  consulship  in  a.d.  391.  His  family 
was  very  wealthy,  and  he  himself  was  a  most  honourable  cha- 
racter, who  enjoyed  the  esteem  even  of  his  Christian  oppo- 


216 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


again  only  partly  so.    A  few  among  them  belong  to  an  earlier 
period  of  the  poet's  life.* 

199.  To  this  period  we  must  probably  assign  the  Latin 
translation  of  the  strange  work  of  the  so-called  Diciys  Ore- 
tends,  who  was  believed  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war,  and  to  have  kept  a  diary  of  the  principal  events 
of  the  war.  The  Latin  translation  of  this  extraordinary  pro- 
duction, no  doubt  a  forgery  of  some  Alexandrian  gi'ammarian, 
is  ascribed  to  one  Q.  Septimius,  and  contains  the  history  of 
the  Trojan  war,  from  the  birth  of  Paris  down  to  the  death 
of  Ulysses.  There  existed  a  similar  work  under  the  name 
of  Dares  Phrygius,  which  was  likewise  translated  into  Latin, 
and  purporting  to  be  rendered  into  Latin  by  Cornelius  Nepos. 
Both  of  these  works  must  be  regarded  as  forgeries,  but  they 
nevertheless  became  extremely  popular  both  in  the  east  and 
in  the  west,  and  have  furnished  to  the  middle  ages  the  sub- 
jects for  the  legends  about  the  Trojan  knights.  The  two 
Latin  translations  are  generally  printed  together.! 

Another  translation  from  the  Greek  likewise  belongs  to 
this  time,  viz.,  a  Latin  translation  of  Josephus*  history  of 
the  Jewish  war,  which  for  a  long  time  was  regarded  as  the 
production  of  Hegesippus,  but  is  probably  the  work  of 
Ambrositis,  to  whom  in  some  MSS.  it  is  actually  ascribed. 
Several  passages  show  that  the  translation  must  have  been 
made  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  The  translator, 
who  was  a  Christian,  has  not  contented  himself  with  simply 
rendering  the  Greek  into  Latin,  but  has  sometimes  omitted 
passages,  sometimes  made  additions  from  Latin  authors,  and 
has  given  to  the  whole  the  character  of  a  Christian  work. 
It  is  printed  in  Bolandi,  Bibl.  Patr.  Vol.  VIL 

There  are  some  other  translations  from  the  Greek  belong- 
ing to  this  time,  but  none  is  of  more  interest  than  a  Latin 
version  of  the  Bible  made  before  that  of  Hieronymus,  and  in 
the  vulgar  dialect  of  Italy.  Portions  of  it  were  published  in 
London,  in  1868,  from  an  Ashbumham  MS.  Other  frag- 
ments, perhaps  of  the   same  translation,  likewise   in  the 

*  The  BIpont  edition  of  Ausonius  contains  all  his  extant  works  in 
1vol. 

t  The  best  edition  of  these  works  is  that  of  A.  Dederich :  Bonn, 
1832  and  1837. 


A.D.  14-GOO]. 


Q.  AURELIUS   SYMMACHUS. 


217 


lingua  vulgaris,  have  been  edited  by  E.  Ranke:  Marburg, 
1856. 

200.  We  cannot  here  discuss  the  many  theological  and 
controversial  writings  which  were  called  forth  about  this 


g^T  but^ 


productions' of  ChWSttan  poetry.  The  singing  of  hymns  of 
praise  and  thanksgiving  had  been  customary  in  the  church 
from  early  times,  but  the  most  ancient  lyric  poetry  of  this 
kind  is  that  of  Damasus,  who  became  Bishop  of  Rome  a.d. 
366,  and  died  a.d.  384,  at  the  age  of  nearly  80.  Most  of  his 
poems  are  in  hexameter,  and  in  them  we  already  see  a  strong 
partiality  for  rhyme;  but  prosody  is  little  attended  to.  It 
is  remarkable  that  in  thirty-seven  poems  Amasus  mentions 
his  own  name  no  less  than  twenty-seven  times.  In  prose 
we  possess  by  him  only  a  collection  of  epistles,  which,  together 
with  his  poetical  works,  are  printed  in  Gallandi,  Biblioth, 
Patrum,  Vol.  VI.;  see  also  Maittaire,  Oiyera  Veterum  Poet, 
Lat.:  London,  1713,  in  2  vols. 

201.  During  the  last  twenty  years  of  the  fourth  century 
the  empire  had  to  defend  itself  on  all  sides  against  foreign 
enemies,  and  in  the  interior  against  usui-pers.  Theodosius 
(from  A.D.  379  to  395),  in  his  internal  administration  made 
every  effort  on  the  one  hand  to  suppress  paganism  and  the 
Arian  heresy;  and  on  the  other  to  establish  the  orthodoxy 
defined  by  the  Nicaean  council.  In  these  efforts  he  was,  on 
the  whole,  successful,  and  polytheism  became  extinct,  except 
in  a  few  families  of  rank,  which  still  clung  to  the  ancient 
literature,  and  through  it  to  the  ancient  religion.  Literature, 
therefore,  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three  illustrious  names, 
is  henceforth  represented  by  Christians. 

One  of  the  few  pagan  wiiters  whom  we  have  still  to  notice 
is  Q.  Aurelius  Symmachus,  son  of  L.  Aurelius  Symmachus 
(of  whom  five  epigrams  are  still  extant,  printed  in  Meyer's 
Anthology,  p.  106,  foil.).  He  must  have  been  bom  about  a.d. 
350,  and  certainly  did  not  die  before  a.d.  420.  He  occupied 
a  very  prominent  position  in  the  empire,  and  notwithstand- 
ing his  attachment  to  the  pagan  religion  rose  to  the  highest 
honours,  even  to  the  consulship  in  a.d.  391,  His  family 
was  very  wealthy,  and  he  himself  was  a  most  honourable  cha- 
racter, who  enjoyed  the  esteem  even  of  his  Christian  oppo- 


218 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.         [pERIOD  V. 


nents;  but  lie  was  deficient  in  energy,  and  not  free  from 
the  prejudices  of  a  Roman  aristocrat,  for  he  looked  upon 
the  senate  as  the  best  and  noblest  portion  of  mankind.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  eloquent  men  of  his  time,  and  the  ease 
and  elegance  of  his  compositions,  formed  after  the  best 
classical  models,  were  acknowledged  by  all.  "VVe  still  possess 
some  specimens  of  his  oratory,  which  were  discovered  by  A. 
Mai,  and  published  at  Milan,  in  1815.  They  consist  of  parts 
of  nine  speeches,  three  of  which  belong  to  his  earlier  years, 
and  are,  in  the  usual  Gallic  style,  somewhat  bombastic  pane- 
gyrics on  Valentinian  I.  and  his  son  Gratian;  the  other  frag- 
ments are  parts  of  speeches  delivered  in  the  Roman  senate, 
either  to  recommend  certain  persons  for  public  offices,  or  ex- 
pressing his  gratitude  to  the  emperor  for  favours  conferred,  etc.* 
The  epistles  of  Symmachus  which  had  been  long  known 
are  of  much  greater  importance.  They  were  probably  collected 
by  his  son,  and  published  after  his  father's  death,  in  ten 
books.  They  had,  no  doubt,  like  the  letters  of  Pliny,  been 
written  with  a  view  to  their  future  publication.  These 
letters  reveal  to  us  the  amiable  and  kindly  character  of 
Symmachus,  who  was  ever  ready  to  afford  help  wherever  he 
could;  but  interesting  as  they  are  by  their  exhibiting  to  us 
the  private  Hfe  and  relations  of  their  author,  they  afford  us 
but  little  information  about  the  public  affairs  of  the  time. 
In  his  letters  he  maintains  with  manly  spirit  his  freedom 
and  independence,  though  he  scrupulously  observes  the 
courtly  style  which  was  then  customary,  not  only  in  letters 
to  the  sovereign,  but  to  other  men  in  high  positions.  In  his 
conduct  towards  Christians  he  was  tolerant,  and  demanded 
for  himself  and  his  friends  nothing  more  than  toleration. 
Once  he  made  an  eloquent  appeal  to  the  emperor  to  order 
the  restoration  of  the  altar  of  Victoria,  which  had  been 
destroyed  in  deference  to  the  Christians.  This  was  met  by 
counter  appeals  of  St.  Ambrose  and  Prudentius,  and  failed 
in  its  object. t 

*  The  fragments  of  his  speeches  were  published  by  Niebuhr  as  an 
appendix  to  his  edition  of  Fronto.  See  also  H.  Meyer,  Franm.  Oral. 
R(m.,  p.  627,  foil. 

t  The  epistles  of  Symmachus  have  often  been  published;  a  good 
edition  is  that  of  J.  Ph.  Pareus,  last  printed  at  Frankfurt,  in  1651. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


AMMIANUS  MARCELLINUS. 


219 


202.  Among  the  many  orators  and  rhetoricians  mentioned 
by  Symmachus  and  others,  we  must  notice — 

1 .  Drepanius  Poca^t^,  a  countryman  and  friend  of  Ausonius ; 
we  still  possess  a  speech  delivered  by  him,  in  a.d.  398,  in  the 
Roman  senate,  which  is  distinguished  for  its  great  liveliness, 
and  for  the  knowledge  which  the  author  displays  of  the 
ancient  Latin  literature.  It  further  contains  on  the  whole 
a  true  description  of  the  state  of  affairs  under  the  usurper 
Maximus,  and  of  the  victory  of  Theodosius  over  him.  The 
speech  is  printed  in  the  collection  of  the  Panegyrists. 

2.  Messius  Arrusianus,  an  orator,  who  flourished  at  the 
same  time,  is  known  to  us  by  a  work,  called  Fxempla  Fxecu- 
tionum,  which  is  dedicated  to  Olybrius  and  Probinus.  It  is 
an  alphabetical  collection  of  substantives,  adjectives,  preposi- 
tions, and  especially  of  verbs  admitting  of  diiSerent  construc- 
tions, with  one  illustrative  example  in  every  case.  It  is 
printed  in  A.  Mai's  edition  of  Fronto. 

3.  Ghirius  Forturmiianiis,  the  author  of  a  rhetorical  school- 
book,  in  three  books,  in  the  form  of  a  catechism,  in  which 
the^  examples  are  taken  from  the  best  authorities,  Cicero  and 
Quintilian;  but  the  questions  and  answers  are  not  always 
put  in  a  skilful  way. 

203.  History  was  studied  and  written  by  some  of  the 
membera  of  the  family  of  Nicomachus,  but  none  of  their 
productions  have  come  down  to  us.  The  only  great  historical 
work  which  has  reached  our  time,  at  least  partially,  is  the 
JRerum  Gestarum  lihri  XXXI.,  by  Ammianus  Marcelliijus, 
a  pagan,  who  was  born  about  a.d.  330,  at  Antioch,  in  Syria, 
and  belonged  to  a  distinguished  Greek  family  there.  After 
having  received  a  careful  education,  he  entered  the  Roman 
army  in  the  east,  where,  in  a.d.  353,  we  find  him  in  the  suite 
of  Ursicinus,  whom,  in  the  year  following,  he  accompanied  to 
Italy  and  Gaul.  He  there  fought  imder  the  Emperor  Julian 
against  the  Alemanni,  a.d.  356;  he  then  again  followed  Ursi- 
cinus to  the  east,  where  he  distinguished  himself,  partly  as  a 
soldier  and  partly  as  a  diplomatist,  by  his  prudence  and  presence 
of  mind.  In  a.d.  359  he  returned  to  Antioch,  and  some  years 
later  he  again  served  under  Julian  against  the  Persians.  He 
finally  settled  at  Rome,  where  he  devoted  his  remaining  years 
to  historical  pursuits.    The  great  work  which  he  produced  was 


220 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATURE.  [pERIOD  V» 


a  continuation  of  Tacitus,  in  thirty-one  books,  from  the  reign 
of  Nerva  down  to  the  death  of  Valens,  a.d.  378.  The  first 
thirteen  books,  in  which  the  work  came  down  to  A.  D.  353, 
seem  to  have  been  very  brief,  and  are  now  lost.  The  remain- 
ing eighteen  books  refer  to  the  author's  own  time,  for  which 
he  is  a  very  valuable  and  trustworthy  authority,  for  in  his 
active  career  he  had  himself  taken  part  in  the  affairs  of  the 
time,  and  evidently  wished  to  tell  the  truth.  His  character 
as  it  appears  in  his  work,  is  that  of  an  honest  and  straight- 
forward soldier.  He  shows  his  devotion  to  pagan  superstition, 
but  is  tolerant  towards  Christians,  and  likes  to  show  off  his 
learning.  His  language  is  often  scarcely  intelligible,  being 
a  medley  of  archaisms,  newly-formed  words  and  phrases,  and 
full  of  unusual  constructions.  In  the  editions  of  this  work 
there  are  generally  added  some  small  anonymous  treatises, 
called  Excerpta  Vetera  de  Constantino  Chloro^  Constantino 
Magno  et  aliis  Imperatoribics,  which  are  written  in  a  bar- 
barous language,  and  Excerpta  de  lihris  Chronicorum  de 
Odoacre  et  Theodorico,  regibus  Italice.* 

204.  Philosophy  was  cultivated  at  this  time,  as  before,  espe- 
cially by  men  who  fancied  they  saw  in  it  a  powerful  weapon 
against  the  overwhelming  influence  of  Christianity;  but  among 
them  there  is  no  one  who  has  left  a  mark  in  literature. 

There  are  two  grammarians  whose  works  are  still  extant, 
and  who  are  of  great  importance  in  more  than  one  respect, 
viz. — 

1.  Servius  Honoratus,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Sym- 
machus,  who  had  a  school  at  Rome,  but  is  known  to  us 
chiefly  through  his  excellent  commentary  on  the  poems  of 
Vergil.  This  commentary  has,  indeed,  come  down  to  our 
time,  but  not  without  considerable  interpolations  and  curtail- 
ments. It  is  full  of  antiquarian,  historical  and  mythological 
lore,  and  of  quotations  from  earlier  writers,  whence  it  is  to 
us  a  mine  of  information  on  Roman  and  Italian  affairs, 
which  is  not  to  be  obtained  elsewhere.! 

*  The  best  editions  of  Ammianus  MarceUinus  are  those  of  Valesius 
and  Lindenbrogius:  Paris,  1681;  and  of  C,  G.  A.  Erfurdt:  Leipzig, 
1808,  in  3  vols. 

t  It  is  printed  in  some  of  the  earlier  editions  of  Vergil,  as  in  that 
of  P.  Burmann:  Amsterdam,  1746,  in  4  vols.  A  separate  edition  has 
been  published  by  H.  A.  Lion,  Gottingen,  1826,  in  2  vols. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


P.   VEGETIUS. 


221 


Some  other  grammatical  works  ascribed  to  Servius  are 
printed  in  Putschius'  and  Keil's  collections  of  Latin  gram- 
marians and  elsewhere.  They  are: — L  In  Secwndam  Donati 
Artem  Interpretatio;  2.  De  Batione  UUimarum  Syllabarum 
liber  ad  Aquilinum;  3.  Ars  de  Pedibus  Versuum  sive  Centum 
Metris;  4.  De  Metris  Iloratii;  5.  De  Accentibus;  but  whether 
all  or  any  of  them  are  really  works  of  Servius  is  very 
doubtful. 

2.  Ti.  Claudius  Donatus,  who  likewise  wrote  a  commentary 
on  Vergil  addressed  to  his  son  Donatianus.  This  commentary 
also  is  extant,  but  shows  less  taste  and  judgment  than  that 
of  Servius,  and  contains  less  historical  and  antiquarian  infor- 
mation. It  is  preceded  by  a  life  of  Vergil,  which  seems  to 
be  mainly  based  on  the  life  of  the  poet  by  Suetonius. 

205.  There  remain  a  few  technical  writers  on  special  sub- 
jects, belonging  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  centuiy : — 

1.  Flavius  Vegetius  Renatus,  the  author  of  an  Epitome 
Institutionum  Rei  Militarise  in  five  books,  which  is  dedicated 
to  the  Emperor  Valentinian,  and  seems  to  have  been  com- 
posed about  A.D.  390.  Vegetius  was  probably  a  Christian, 
who  extracted  the  information  conveyed  in  his  book  from 
earlier  writers  on  military  affairs  of  the  Romans,  and  intro- 
duced historical  notices  of  regulations  made  by  Augustus, 
Trajan,  and  Hadrian.  The  work  is  simply  a  compilation 
from  other  books,  and  the  author  does  not  aim  at  any  beauty 
or  excellence  ot  style,  but  his  facts  are  valuable.* 

2.  P.  Vegetius,  sometimes  surnamed  Veterinarius,  seems 
to  have  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  and 
is  the  author  of  a  work  called  Mulomedicinay  or  De  Arte 
Veterinarian  in  six  books.  It  treats  of  diseases  of  horses 
and  oxen,  and  is  founded  on  Greek  works  treating  of  the 
same  subject  (hippiatrica).  The  style  and  language  are  so 
barbarous  that  some  critics  suppose  it  to  be  a  translation  of 
some  Greek  work  made  in  the  middle  ages.  It  is  printed  in 
J.  M.  Gesner's  Scriptores  rei  Busticce. 

3.  Marcellus,  sumamed  EmpiricuSy  is  said  to  have  held 
some  official  position  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.  Under 
his  name  there  exists  a  work,  De  Medicamentisy  which  cannot 

*  A  good  text  of  the  work  has  been  edited  by  C.  Lang:  Leipzig, 
in  Teubner's  collection. 


222 


HISTORY   OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


^ 


J 


have  been  writien^efore  a.d.  408.  As  the  author  calls 
Aiisonius  his  felltf^-citizen,  he  must  have  belonged  to  Burdi- 
gala.  His  wflrt^which  is  mainly  based  upon  ScriboniusLargus, 
consists  ofnEfrty-six  chapters,  giving  remedies,  even  magical 
ones,  agaij^  all  kinds  of  diseases.  Its  chief  value  consists 
in  raakiij^^  us  acquainted  with  botanical  names,  some  of  which 
are  als^r  given  in  Keltic.  Appended  to  the  book  are  seventy- 
eigh^exameters  on  the  same  subject,  but  their  prosody  is 
vvew  filcorrect.  * 

The^fol lowing  are  the  most  important  theological 
•it$j?rl5fthis  period,  but  as  they  belong  to  the  history  of 
(nstianity  and  of  the  Church  rather  than  to  a  history  of 
literature,  we  shall  not  discuss  their  theological  writings, 
but  confine  our  remarks  to  those  which  are  of  interest  to 
s^hojara : — 

>\imbrosius  or  ^SL^mbPooc^ishop  of  Milan,  flourished 
,%  from  about  a.d.  340  to  397.     He  is  the  grandest  Christian 
character  of  the  time;  he  was  clever,  energetic,  and  bold, 
but  at  the  same  time  unselfish  and  humane.     In  promoting 
and- establishing  the  power  and  glory  of  the  church  he  was 
indefatigable;  in  fact  he  has  been  described  as  at  once  the 
general  and  the  statesman  of  the  church  militant,  for  which  he 
did  more  than  any  one  else.     Among  his  numerous  writings, 
the  most  important  to  us  are  his  epistles  and  his  funeral 
orations  on  Valentinian  and  Theodosius;  but  he  also  acquired 
great  reputation  by  his  sacred  hymns,  in  which  he  adhered 
more  closely  to  the  classical  forms  than  Amasus.     He  was 
probably  a  native  of  Gaul,  and  began  his  career  as  a  pleader  in 
courts  of  law,  but  in  his  position  as  bishop  of  Milan,  he  com- 
menced his  polemics  against  the  Arians,  and  showed  his  bold- 
ness and  energy,  particularly  in  his  conduct  towards  Valen- 
tinian.    His  learning,  however,  was  neither  very  profound 
nor  very  extensive,   and   his  greatness  lay  simply  in  his 
I)ersonal   character.      We   still   possess   ninety-one    of    his 
epistles,  some  of  which  are  real  treatises,  as,  e.g.,  that  against 
Symmachus'  proposal  to  restore  the  altar  of  Victory.     His 
twelve  hymns  are  composed  in  iambic  dimeters,  and  the  lines 
are  often  rhyming.  These  hymns  became  so  popular  that  after- 

*  The  little  work  is  sometimes  printed  together  with  the  works  of 
veisu3.  ... 


I 


A.D.  14-600.] 


HIERONYMUS. 


223 


wards  all  similar  compositions,  such  as  the  famous  *'Te  Deum 
Laudamus,"  were  called  Ambrosian  hymns.  His  other  works 
are  of  a  strictly  theological  and  polemical  character.  Like 
those  of  most  other  Christian  writers,  they  are  printed  in  the 
collections  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathei*s. 

207.  Hieronymus,  commonly^^ca^lftd  RtJ^roniA^  was  a  much 
iTfiore  leariied  cfeiender  of  Uhristianity,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
much  more  acute  thinker  and  dialectician.  He  was  born,  a.d. 
331,  at  Stridon,  on  the  frontier  of  Dalmatia  and  Pannonia, 
and  received  instruction  from  Marius  Victorinus,  Donatus, 
and  at  Constantinople  from  Gregorius  of  Nazianzus.  He  was 
equally  versed  in  Greek  and  Hebrew  as  in  Latin.  He  is 
the  author  of  an  immense  number  of  works,  of  which  he 
himself  gives  us  a  list,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  he  must 
have  been  a  man  of  most  extraordinary  mental  activity. 
Most  of  his  works  seem  to  have  been  written  at  a  monastery 
near  Bethlehem,  whither  he  retired  in  a,d.  381,  and  where  he 
died,  A.D.  420.     Among  his  works  we  must  here  notice: — 

1.  His  Translation  of  the  Old  ayul  New  Testament,  a  real 
master-work  of  the  kind,  which  completely  eclipsed  the 
earlier  translation,  and  still  forms  the  foundation  of  the 
Vulgate. 

2.  His  Translation  of  the  Chronicle  of  Emebim,  with  inter- 
polations and  a  continuation;  it  is  dedicated  to  Valentius  and 
Gallienus.  The  original  chronicle  came  down  to  a.d.  325, 
and  Hieronymus  continued  it  to  a.d.  378,  and  at  the  same 
time  made  additions  in  other  parts ;  these  additions  or  inter- 
polations can  now  be  easily  discovered  by  comparing  the 
Armenian  tmnslation,  which  is  a  simple  version  of  the 
Greek,  and  was  discovered  in  1816.  The  chronicle  of  Hiero- 
nymus was  afterwards  continued  by  Prosper  and  Cassiodorus. 

3.  De  Viris  Illustrihus,  is  a  history  of  all  the  Christian 
writers  down  to  his  own  time,  and  thus  forms  a  complete 
history  of  Christian  literature.     It  was  written  in  A.D.  392. 

4.  Epistolce,  which  extend  over  the  long  period  from  a.d. 
370  to  the  end  of  his  life,  in  420.* 

208.  Turannius  Rufinus,  a  contemporary  and  friend  of 

*  The  works  of  Hieronymus  were  edited  by  Erasmus:  Basle, 
1665,  in  9  vols.,  foil.  They  are  also  contained  in  Migne's  PairologicB 
C!wr6U9  Completus:  Paris^  1849,  vols,  22-30^ 


224 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


/ 


Hieronymus,  was  a  native  of  Aquileia,  and  occupied  himself 
chiefly  with  translating  theological  works  from  the  Greek 
into  Latin.  Thus,  he  translated  works  of  Origen  and  Euse- 
bius ;  but  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  much  concerned 
about  literal  fidelity.  In  one  of  his  works  Rufinus,  having 
spoken  in  praise  of  Origen,  whose  opinions  were  looked  upon 
as  heretical,  Hieronymus,  who  himself  had  previously  been 
an  admirer  of  Origen,  made  a  fierce  attack  upon  his  friend, 
to  which  the  latter  replied  in  a  work  consisting  of  two 
volumina,  which  is  still  extant.  Rufinus  also  published  an 
edition  of  the  Sententke  of  Sextius,  which  he  altered  and 
modified  so  as  to  give  them  a  Christian  appearance.  The 
works  of  Rufinus  are  collected  in  Migne's  Patrol  y  Vol.  XXI. 

Another  Christian  writer  of  this  time  was  Faustinus,  two 
of  whose  works  have  come  down  to  us,  one  against  the 
Arians  and  Macedonians,  in  seven  books,  and  another,  in 
defence  of  his  own  party;  it  was  presented  to  Valentinian, 
Theodosius,  and  Arcadius.  They  are  printed  in  Migne's 
Patrol,  Vol.  XIII. 

209.  Aurelius  Prudentius  Clemens  is  the  most  distin- 
guished Christian  poet  of  the  time.  He  was  a  native  of 
Spain,  bom  about  A.D.  348.  He  began  his  career  as  a 
pleader  in  courts  of  law,  and  afterwards  filled  several  poli- 
tical oflSces ;  but  when  he  had  reached  the  age  of  fifty-seven 
he  published  his  poems  and  withdrew  into  a  monastery. 
The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown.  His  poetry  bears  strong 
marks  of  his  original  pursuits  as  a  rhetorician.  He  possesses 
a  great  command  of  language,  and  manages  his  subjects  with 
such  skill  that  even  abstruse  subjects  become  lively  and 
interesting  in  his  hands.     His  principal  works  are — 

1.  Liber  Cathemerinon,  a  collection  of  religious  hymns  for 
daily  use,  in  lyrical  metres,  partly  in  imitation  of  those  of 
Horace. 

2.  Liber  Peristephanouj  poems  in  praise  of  Christian  mar- 
tyrs, in  various  metres ;  some  of  them  show  great  warmth  of 
feeling. 

3.  Ilamartigmeiay  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  he  there 
combats  the  heresies  of  the  different  Christian  sects;  it  is 
chiefly  written  in  hexameters. 

4.  Psychomachiaj  an  allegorical  poem  in  hexameters,  in 


A.D.  14-600.]       MEROPIUS  PONTIUS  ANICIUS  PAULINUS. 


225 


which  the  virtues  and  the  vices  contend  for  the  possession 
of  the  soul  of  man. 

5.  Contra  Symmachum,  in  two  books,  likewise  in  hexa- 
meters. In  the  first  book  he  combats  polytheism  in  general, 
and  in  the  second  the  special  assertions  of  Symmachus,  who 
had  petitioned  the  emperor  to  restore  the  altar  of  Victory. 

6.  Diptychon,  or  Uncheiridlon,  consists  of  forty-nine  epi- 
grams, of  four  hexameter  lines  each,  on  Biblical  subjects. 

In  matters  of  form,  and  in  versification,  Prudentius  follows 
the  best  models  of  the  classical  times,  but  his  prosody  is  not 
always  quite  correct.* 

We  must  also  mention  a  poetess,  Proha  Faltonia,  the  wife 
of  the  proconsul  Adelphus,  who  composed  in  Vergilian  verses 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  history  of  Christ  from 
his  birth  to  his  ascension.  These  compositions  are  still 
extant,  and  have  often  been  printed  (see  Mi^ne,  Patrol,  Vol. 
XIX).  \  ^    > 

210.  Meropius  Pontius  Anicius  Paulinus,  a  distinguished 
writer  both  in  prose  and  in  verse,  was  a  relative  and  pupil 
of  Ausonius,  and  a  native  of  Burdigala.  He  flourished 
between  a.d.  353  and  431.  Having  received  a  careful 
rhetorical  education,  he  composed  a  panegyric  on  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius  after  his  victory  over  Eugenius.  We  still 
possess  fifty-seven  letters  written  by  him,  and  a  number  of 
poems  in  different  metres.  In  a.d.  389  he  became  a  convert 
to  Christianity,  and  ultimately,  in  a.d.  409,  Bishop  of  Nola, 
in  Campania,  after  having  given  all  his  property  to  the  poor. 
After  his  conversion  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  pro- 
motion of  Christianity  and  the  glorification  of  the  martyrs, 
especially  of  Felix,  who  was  greatly  venerated  at  Nola.  All 
his  productions  show  that  he  was  intimately  acquainted  with 
the  pagan  literature  of  Rome  (see  his  works  in  JVIigne's 
Patrol,  Vol.  LXI. 

211.  There  exists  a  work.  Lex  Dei,  probably  written  in 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  by  some  unknown  Christian  lawyer 
who  was  well  acquainted  with  the  Roman  criminal  law. 
The  work  contains  a  comparison  of  the  Mosaic  laws  with  the 
laws  of  the  Romans,  in  which  the  author  tries  to  show  that 

*  A  good  separate  edition  of  Prudentius  is  that  of  Th.  Obbarius : 
Tubmgen,  1845.    See  also  the  collections  of  the  Fathers. 

P 


226 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


/ 


the  laws  of  Moses  form  the  real  foundation  of  those  of  Rome. 
The  whole  is  divided  into  sLxteen  titles.  The  latest  Roman 
law  quoted  is  one  promulgated  by  Theodosius  in  a.d.  390. 
The  work  is  printed  in  Huschke's  Jurisprudentice  Antejus- 
tinianm  Beliquice,  pp.  528-590. 

212.  The  end  of  the  fourth  century  produced  one  pagan 
poet,  who  was  so  familiar  with  the  forms  and  metres  of  the 
best  period  of  Latin  literature  as  to  apply  them  with  the 
greatest  ease  and  freedom,  though  in  other  respects,  in  his 
rhetorical  phrases  and  in  his  flattery  of  the  great,  he  was  by 
no  means  above  his  age.  That  poet  was  Claudius  Claudi- 
anus,  a  native  of  Alexandi-ia,  in  Egypt.  About  his  family 
and  the  time  of  his  bii-th  nothing  is  known;  but  from  his 
works  it  is  evident  that  he  had  received  a  careful  education, 
and  acquired  extensive  knowledge  of  a  variety  of  subjects. 
He  seems  to  have  been  at  Rome,  a.d.  395,  and  there  to  have 
become  acquainted  with  the  Vandal,  Stilicho,  afterwards  his 
great  friend  and  patron,  whose  fall  in  a.d.  408  Claudius  did 
not  live  to  see,  as  the  latest  event  alluded  to  in  his  poems 
belongs  to  a.d.  404.  Although  his  native  language  was 
Greek,  he  wrote  nearly  all  his  poems  in  Latin;  and  although 
he  was  a  pagan,  he  nowhere  shows  any  hostility  towards 
the  Christians.  His  poems  are  for  the  most  part  on  con- 
temporaries or  contemporary  events,  either  praising  his  great 
and  powerful  friends,  such  as  Stilicho  and  Honorius,  or 
attacking  his  enemies,  such  as  Rufinus  and  Eutropius.  For 
this  reason  his  poems  are  also  of  historical  importance;  but 
we  must  remember  that  he  avails  himself  of  the  poetical 
licence  of  embellishing  and  exaggerating  the  virtues  of  his 
heroes,  and  is  not  free  from  passionate  vehemence  in  the 
attacks  of  his  enemies.  His  poetry  has  gi-eater  force,  dis- 
plays greater  resources  and  a  more  powerful  imagination, 
than  that  of  Silius  Italicus,  or  that  of  any  other  of  the  later 
poets.  We  shall  enumerate  the  works  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  printed  in  the  edition  of  J.  M.  Gesner:  Leipzig, 
1759:— 

1.  In  Gonsulatum  Prohini  et  Olyh'iif  refers  to  a.d.  395, 
and  is  a  panegyric,  in  279  hexameters,  on  the  two  consuls. 

2.  In  Rujinumy  in  two  books,  likewise  in  hexameters,  each 
book  having  an  introduction  in  elegiacs.     He  is  most  bitter 


A.1).  14-600.] 


CLAUDIUS   C5LAUDIANUS. 


227 


) 


against  Rufinus,  though  he  is  not  supposed  to  be  too  severe 
upon  him. 

3.  De  tertio  Consuhtu  Honorii  Augusti,  a  panegyric  in 
hexametei-s  referring  to  a.d.  396. 

4.  De  quarto  Coiisvlatu  Ilo^wrii  Augustiy  a  similar  pane- 
gyric referring  to  a.d.  398. 

5.  De  Nuptiis  Honorii  et  MaricB,  a.d.  398. 

6.  Fescennina  in  Nuptias  Honorii  et  JIance,  a  number  of 
smaller  poems,  in  difterent  metres,  all  referring  to  the  mar- 
riage of  Honorius. 

7.  De  Bello  Gildonico,  in  hexameters,  describes  the  pre- 
parations for  the  war  against  the  Mauretanian  chief,  Gildo, 
in  A.D.  398. 

8.  De  Fl.  Mallii  Theodori  ConsulatUj  with  a  prologue  in 
elegiacs,  belongs  to  a.d.  399. 

9.  In  Futropium,  in  two  books,  is  full  of  contempt  of 
Eutropius,  and  belongs  to  a.d.  400. 

10.  De  laudihus  StUichoniSj  in  two  books,  ic  a  most  lively 
panegyric  on  that  captain. 

11.  De  Consulatv,  Stiliclionis,  with  a  preface  in  elegiacs, 
belongs  to  a.d.  400. 

12.  De  Bello  Getico  describes  Stilicho's  wars  against  the 
Getse,  or  Goths,  during  the  years  from  a.d.  400  to  403. 

13.  In  sextum  Gonsulatum  Honorii  Augustiy  a  panegyric 
belonging  to  a.d.  400. 

14.  Laus  SerenoB  Regince,  a  panegyric  on  that  lady,  the 
adopted  daughter  ot  Theodosius  and  wife  of  Stilicho.  This 
poem  is  unfinished. 

15.  Fpithalamium,  a  marriage  song  addressed  to  Palladius 
and  Celerina. 

All  these  poems  refer  to  persons  or  events  of  the  poet's 
own  time;  but  the  following  treat  of  mythological  subjects : — 

1.  De  Baptu  Froserpince,  in  three  books,  seems  to  be  un- 
finished. 

2.  Gigantomachia  is  likewise  unfinished.  He  seems  to 
have  treated  the  same  subject  in  a  Greek  poem,  of  which 
seventy-seven  lines  are  still  extant. 

3.  Fpistolasy  five  in  number,  and  all  in  elegiacs.  They 
are  real  letters,  and  are  written  in  plain  and  simple  lan- 
guage. 


228 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V, 


4.  Idyllia,  seven  in  number,  are  studies  of  a  descriptive 
and  narrative  kind  in  hexameters  and  elegiacs. 

5.  Epigrams,  forty-four  in  number :  some  of  them  are 
written  in  Greek;  all  of  them  are  certainly  not  by  Claudian; 
some  of  them  are  clearly  the  works  of  Christians,  perhaps  of 
Amasus. 

To  these  works  Gesner,  in  his  edition  of  Claudian,  has 
added  a  poem  called  Landed  Ilercidis,  the  author  of  which  is 
unknown. 

^\S^.  Auj-filiu^  Augiifif-^'niia  (St.  Ausrustin)  was  born  at 
Sagaste,  in  Numidia.  His  father  is  described  as  a  very  pas- 
sionate man,  and  he  grew  up  chiefly  under  the  influence  of 
his  pious  mother,  Monica.  He  received  his  literary  and 
rhetorical  education  at  Madaura,  and  afterwards  continued 
his  studies  at  Carthage,  where  he  led  rather  a  reckless  life, 
and  became  connected  with  the  sect  of  the  Manichgeans. 
Subsequently  we  find  him  engaged  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric 
at  Tagaste,  Carthage,  and  Rome.  From  the  last  city  he  was 
sent  to  teach  at  Slilan,  of  which  ^.  Ambrose  was  bishop. 
Through  his  influence,  united  with  that  nfTEisjnQtherf  hewas 
won  over  to  ine  urthudufcnurch^  and  baptised  a.d.  387.  He~ 
tfeen  returned  to  Africa^  became  a  presbyter  in  A.D.  386,  and, 
in  395,  Bishop  '^^  ^Tprtj,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death, 
in  A.D.  430,  during  tlio  siege  of  the  town  by  the  Vandals. 

Augustin  was  the  greatest  and  most  influential  among  the 
ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  time  :  in  his  character  he  com- 
bined the  lively  imagination  of  a  poet  with  the  acute  intel- 
lect of  a  philosopher ;  the  grand  pathos  of  an  orator  with  the 
pettiness  of  a  quibbling  grammarian ;  and  large-heartedness 
with  fanatical  zealotism.  In  his  earlier  years  he  had  indulged 
his  passions ;  but  afterwards  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  con- 
templation of  his  inmost  self,  and  of  human  nature  in  general, 
whereby  he  gave  to  theology  a  more  practical  direction,  while 
with  inexorable  severity  he  combated  the  heresies  then 
prevailing. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  in  A.D.  427,  he  wrote  a  work 
called  RetractationeSy  in  two  books,  in  which  he  gives  a  com- 
plete account  of  the  works  he  had  until  then  published,  and 
in  which  he  intended  to  correct  sundry  errors  of  which  he 
had  since   become   convinced;  but  some   of  those  earlier 


A.D.  14-600.] 


AtJRELiUg   AtJGUSTINUS. 


229 


works  had  become  so  scarce  that  he  was  unable  to  obtain  a 
copy,  while  others  are  still  extant,  such  as — 

1.  Lihri  tres  contra  Academicos,  written  in  a.d.  386,  and 
edited  separately  by  Orelli,  with  Cicero's  Academica. 

2.  De  pulchro  et  apto,  written  at  Carthage  about  a.d.  380, 
in  two  or  three  books.  The  book  was  very  early  lost,  and 
Augustin  himself  was  unable  afterwards  to  obtain  a  copy 
of  it. 

3.  De  Vita  Beata,  dedicated  to  Manlius  Theodorus ;  of  this 
book  also  Augustin  was  unable  to  procure  a  complete  copy 
when  he  wanted  to  correct  his  errors. 

,  4.  De  Ordine. — In  this  treatise  he  discusses  the  question 
whether  good  and  evil  are  both  contemplated  by  Providence 
in  the  government  of  the  world. 

5.  Soliloqiiia,  in  two  books,  are  communings  with  himself 
on  a  variety  of  subjects. 

6.  De  Immcyrtalitate  AnlmcB  was  written,  as  Augustin  him- 
self admits,  in  a  style  so  obscure  that  afterwards  he  himself 
could  scarcely  understand  it. 

7.  Disciplince,  that  is,  the  elements  of  the  so-called  sep- 
tem  artes  liherales  (the  seven  liberal  arts),  was  a  kind  of 
encyclopaedia,  embracing  grammar,  music,  dialectics,  rhetoric, 
geometry,  arithmetic,  and  philosophy.  Of  this  work  we  still 
possess  the  part  treating  on  rhythm  and  music  {De  Ilusica, 
in  six  books).  It  is  composed  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  a  master  and  his  pupil,  and  seems  to  be  based  for 
the  most  part  on  a  similar  work  of  Varro.  An  abridgment 
of  it  has  been  discovered  by  A.  Mai,  and  is  printed  in  his 
Collectio  Scriptor.  Vet,  Yol.  III.,  p.  116,  foil. 

Of  the  part  treating  on  rhetoric,  a  portion  only  has  come 
down  to  us,  which  is  printed  in  C.  Halm's  Rhetores  Lat. 
Minores:  Leipzig,  1863.  Of  the  part  De  grammatica,  only  an 
abridgment  is  extant,  which  has  been  published  separately 
by  C.  Fr.  Weber:  Marburg,  1861;  the  Principia  Dialecticoi 
has  been  published  separately  by  Crecelius:  Elberfeldt,  1857. 

Among  Augustin's  later  works  those  of  most  general 
interest  are : — 

1.  CwifessioneSy  in  thirteen  books,  in  the  fii'st  ten  of  which 
he  speaks  of  himself,  and  in  the  remaining  tliree  of  the  Scrip- 
tures.   This  work  throws  a  vast  deal  of  light  on  the  manners 


230 


HISTORY  OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V 


and  morals  of  the  period.  Good  editions  of  the  work  are  those 
of  Dr.  Pusey,  in  the  Bihlioth.  Pair.  Eccles.  Cathol.y  Vol.  1, 
Oxford;  and  of  K.  von  Raumer:  Stuttgard,  1856.  Augustin's 
most  celebrated  work  is, 

2.  De  Civitate  Deiy  in  twenty-two  books.  The  composition  of 
it  occupied  several  years,  and  it  was  not  completed  till  a.d.  426. 
The  author  was  induced  to  write  it,  he  says,  for  the  purpose 
of  refuting  the  assertions  of  many  pagans  that  the  calamities 
which  befell  Kome,  during  the  invasion  of  the  Groths  in  ad. 
410,  were  the  consequences  of  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity. There  is  a  useful  edition  of  the  text  published  by 
Tauchnitz :  Leipzig,  1825. 

"We  further  possess  270  epistles  of  St.  Augustin,  many  of 
which  are  long  dissertations,  and  which  extend  ovor  the 
period  from  a.d.  386  to  the  last  year  of  his  life,  a.d.  430. 
His  other  works  are  purely  theological,  and  consist  of  dog- 
matic and  polemical  treatises  and  sermons.* 

214.  Sulpicius  Severus,  a  presbyter  and  contemporary  of 
St.  Augustin,  was  a  native  of  Aquitania,  in  Gaul,  and  must 
have  been  bom  about  a.d.  365.  He  seems  to  have  spent  the 
principal  part  of  his  life  in  a  monastery,  and  is  known  to  us 
as  the  author  tf  a  brief  chronicle  entitled,  A  Mundi  Exordio 
libri  II.  It  begins  with  the  creation  and  carries  the  history 
down  to  his  own  time,  a,d.  403,  As  he  did  not  know 
Hebrew  he  iised  the  Septuagint  version  for  the  Old  Testa- 
ment history.  In  his  language  he  imitates  Sallust  and  Tacitus, 
the  latter  of  whom  he  also  used  as  an  authority  in  his  history 
of  the  Jewish  war.  He  did  not  intend  to  wnte  a  critical  his- 
tory, but  has  produced  a  good  book,  which  it  is  pleasant  to 
read.t  Sulpicius  Severus  also  wrote  a  life  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours,  which  gives  us  a  very  vivid  picture  of  the  religious 
excitement  of  those  times.  The  saint  is  described  as  having 
had  frequent  contests  with  the  devil,  as  having  had  visions 
of  Christ  and  the  angels,  as  having  performed  sundry  miracles 
and  predicted  the  near  approach  of  the  end  of  all  things. 
Two  dialogues  continue  the  subject  of  the  life  of  St.  Martin, 
and  are  written  in  imitation  of  the  dialogues  of  Cicero. 

*  An  edition  of  all  St.  Augustin's  works  has  been  edited  by  Migne: 
Paris,  1835-1839,  in  11  vols, 
t  It  has  been  edited  by  J.  Drusius:  Aniheim,  1607. 


A.D.  14-600.]        MACROBIUS  AMBROSIUS  THEODOSIUS. 


231 


Lastly,  we  have  by  him  three  epistles  to  Eusebius.  Aurelius, 
and  Bassula,  which  are  intended  as  introductions  to  the 
dialogues.  The  language  of  all  the  productions  of  this 
author  is  comparatively  pure  and  simple.* 

215.  There  are  some  other  Christian  writers  of  this  period 
who  deserve  to  be  noticed : — 

1.  Q.  Jidius  miario,  a  countryman  and  contemporary  of 
Sulpicius  Severus,  who  in  A.D,  397  wrote  a  little  work,  De 
Buratione  JIundi,  which  still  exists.  Its  style  and  language 
are  very  barbarous ;  but  its  author  is  evidently  a  man  of  an 
independent  mind.-  The  work  is  printed  in  Migne's  Patrol, 
Vol.  Vn.,  p.  277,  foil. 

2.  Tichonius,  a  Donatist,  born  in  Africa,  wrote  among  other 
things  a  work,  De  Bello  Intestino,  in  three  books. 

3.  Flavins  Mallius  Theodorus,  who  was  consul  in  a.d.  399, 
and  wrote  a  little  work,  De  Metris,  in  a  form  which  shows 
great  independence  of  the  prevailing  style.  It  is  dedicated 
to  his  son,  and  is  printed  in  Gaisford's  Scriptores  Lat.  llei 
Metricce:  Oxford,  1837. 

4.  Pelagius,  a  Briton,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the 
Pelagians,  wrote  several  works,  some  of  which  are  known 
only  from  the  writings  of  St.  Augustin  against  them.  His 
principal  work,  which  we  still  possess,  is  a  well-written  con- 
fession of  his  faith  addressed  to  Pope  Innocent. 

5.  CcelestiuSy  likeXv^ise  a  Briton,  and  a  friend  of  Pelagius. 
His  writings  are  known  only  from  their  being  mentioned  or 
quoted  by  St.  Augustin. 

6.  Anianus,  translated  homilies  of  St.  Chrysostom,  which 
are  printed  with  the  works  of  the  latter. 

7..  JuUanuSy  Bishop  of  ^clanum,  was  deposed,  a.d.  418, 
because  he  had  adopted  the  doctrines  of  Pelagius.  He  wrote 
several  books  against  St.  Augustin.  Other  ecclesiastical 
writers  of  this  time  are  enumerated  by  Gennadius,  De  Viris 
Illustnhus. 

216.  Macrobius  Ambrosius  Theodosius. — Nothing  positive 
is  known  about  his  personal  history,  except  that  he  belonged 
to  an  illustrious  family,  and  that,  as  he  himself  intimates,  he 
was  not  a  native  of  Italy.  It  is,  however,  not  impossible 
that  he  may  be  the  Macrobius,  who,  a.d.  399,  was  prsefectus 

*  A  good  edition  was  published  by  C.  Halm:  Wien,  1866. 


232  HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 

praetorio  Hispaniarum,  in  a.d.  410,  proconsul  of  Africa,  and 
m  A.D.  422,  prsepositiis  sacri  cubiculi.  If  this  be  correct, 
he  must  have  been  a  Christian  at  the  last-mentioned  date,  as 
none  but  a  Christian  could  hold  that  office;  but  as  in  his 
writings  Macrobius  is  a  thorough  pagan,  it  would  follow 
that  his  works  were  written  before  a.d.  422;  but,  however 
this  may  be,  we  know  Macrobius  only  as  the  author  of  three 
works  still  extant : — 

1.  Commentarius  in  Somnium  ScipioniSj  in  two  books, 
addressed  to  his  son  Eustachius.  By  way  of  introduction 
Macrobius  gives  some  account  of  the  relation  subsisting  be- 
tween Cicero's  work,  De  Re  Puhlica  (of  which  the  dream  of 
Scipio  forms  a  part),  and  Plato's  Politica,  and  of  the  general 
import  of  dreams.  Throughout  the  commentary  Macrobius 
reasons  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  New  Platonists,  to 
whose  school  he  belonged. 

2.  Satumalium  Conviviorum  lihri  Septem,  composed  in 
the  form  of  dialogues,  supposed  to  be  carried  on  during  the 
three  days  of  the  Saturnalia,   and  the  day  preceding  the 
festival,  partly  before  and  partly  during  dinner.     The  sub- 
jects of  discussion  are  of  the  most  different  kind,  and  remind 
us  of  the  Nodes  Atticce  of  Gellius;  but  the  merits  of  Vergil 
form  the  main  topic.     In  form,  the  dialogues  are  imitations 
of  those  of  Plato.     The  work  has  not  come  down  to  us 
entire,  for  there  are  wanting  the  end  of  the  second  book,  the 
begmning  of  the  third,  the  second  half  of  the  fourth,  and  the 
end  of  the  seventh;  but  it  nevertheless  contains  much  infor- 
mation which  the  author  culled  from  books  which  are  now 
lost.     The  style  and  language  are  above  the  average  of  con- 
temporary wi'iters,  especially  when  we  remember  that  Mac- 
robius wrote  in  a  language  which  was  not  his  native  tongue. 

3.   De  Differ entiis  et  Sodetatihus  Grceci  Latinique  verhi. 

Of  this  work  we  possess  only  excerpts  which  were  made  in 
.  the  middle  ages,  and  are  of  little  value.* 

^  217.   Other  grammarians   belonging  to  about  the  same 
time  are: — 

1.  Vibius  Sequester,  to  whom  is  ascribed  a  dictionary  of 

♦  The  works  of  Macrobius  have  been  collected  by  L.  Jan:  Qued- 
hnburg  and  Leipzig,  1848  52,  in  2  vols.  A  good  text  is  that  edited 
by  J?r.  Eissenhardt,  in  Teubner's  collection. 


a.d.  14-600.]       SEVERUS   SANCTUS   EJfDELECHIUS.  233 

geographical  names  occurring  in  the  poets  most  commonly 
read  in  schools.  The  author  is  evidently  a  pagan,  the  work 
not  containing  a  trace  of  Christianity.  The  language  is 
barbarous,  and  the  remarks  of  the  author  show  traces  of 
carelessness  or  ignorance.* 

^  2.  Exuperantius,  the  author  of  a  little  work  on  the  first 
civil  war  at  Rome,  which  seems  to  be  only  a  poor  compila- 
tion from  the  works  of  Sallust,  whose  histories  were  then 
very  popular.  The  name  Exuperantius  was  so  common 
during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  that  it  is  impossible  to 
identify  him.  t 

3.  Grillius  wrote  a  commentary  on  Cicero,  De  Tnventione, 
from  which  some  extracts  are  still  extant;  they  are  printed 
in  C.  Halm's  Rhetores  Lat.  Min.,  p.  596,  foil. 

We  may  here  also  notice  Theodorus  Friscianus,  who  is 
styled  Archiater,  and  wrote  a  medical  work  in  Greek,  which 
is  lost,  but  of  which  a  Latin  translation  is  still  extant,  under 
the  title  of  Medicina  Prcesentanea,  in  five  books.  The  author 
owns  that  he  is  a  follower  of  the  old  religion.  Other  works 
by  the  same  author,  such  as  Antidotarium  and  De  Simrylici 
Medicina,  are  entirely  lost.| 

218.  The  following  writers,  all  of  whom  belong  to  the  end 
of  the  fourth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  composed 
all,  or  at  least  some  of  their  works  in  verse 

1.  Severus  Sanctus  Endelechius,  a  rhetorician,  is  the 
author  of  a  pleasing  idyll  on  a  cattle  plague,  written  in  ascle- 
piadean  and  glyconic  meters.  The  author,  probably  a  native 
of  Gaul,  has  written  his  poem  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  two  shepherds  who  lament  over  the  disease  which 
IS  ruining  their  flocks.  They  are  met  by  another  shepherd 
who  has  saved  his  flock  by  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The  two 
others  thereupon  resolve  to  become  Christians.  The  poem  is 
printed  in  Wemsdorf's  Poetm  Lat.  J/m.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  218,  foil. 

2.  Licentius,  a  countryman  and  pupil  of  St.  Augustin,  was 

studying  at  Rome  at  the  time  when  Augustin  returned  to 

*  The  best  edition  is  that  of  C.  Bursian:  Zurich,  1867 
t  Edited  by  C.  Bursian:  Zurich,  1868. 

Biiri532^*'''  ^^"^^^  ^*'^  ^'^*^*'  ^^  published  by  S.  Gelenius : 
1838^*  ^^  ^^"^  ^^^^  published  separately,  by  J.  A.  Giles:  London, 


234 


filSTORt  Of  LATIN  LltERAtURfi         [pERIOD  V. 


Africa.  From  Eome  lie  sent  his  master  a  somewhat  flippant 
poem  of  154  hexameter  lines,  in  which  he  asked  for  his 
advice,  and  the  loan  of  his  work,  De  Musica.  As  he  also 
hinted  in  his  poem  that  he  intended  to  marry,  Augustm  did 
all  he  could  to  prevent  it,  and  seems  to  have  succeeded  m 
pei-suading  him  to  enter  a  monastery.  The  poem  is  prmted 
in  Wemsdorfs  Poet(B  Lat  Miru,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  516,  foil. 

3.  Symphosius  is  the  author  of  100  riddles  (semgmata), 
each  of  which  consists  of  three  hexameter  lines.  The  riddles 
are  preceded  by  a  prologue  of  seventeen  hexameters.  The 
author  clearly  still  clings  to  the  pagan  faith,  and  no  influence 
of  Christianity  is  >dsible.  His  language  and  versification 
are  correct,  and  he  has  evidently  imitated  Ausonius.  ihe 
best  text  of  the  riddles  is  that  in  Riese's  Antholog.  Lat,  /., 
p.  187,  foil.  ^        .        ri.1        • 

4.  Avianus  is  the  author  of  forty-two  ^sopian  fables,  m 
elegiacs,  dedicated  to  one  Theodosius;  he  probably  lived  at 
Rome,  and  cei-tainly  was  not  a  Christian.  His  style  and 
language,  though  not  always  simple,  are  generally  P^^e,  and 
his  verses  are  correct,  and  often  even  elegant.  The  book 
was  much  used  as  a  school-book,  whence  some  of  the  fables 
are  much  interpolated,  and  others  have  been  added  which 
did  not  belong  to  Avianus.* 

5.  Martianus  Capella,  a  native  of  Carthage  or  Madaura, 
lived  shortly  before  Africa  was  conquered  by  the  Vandals. 
He  was  a  pleader,  but  what  became  of  him  after  the  Vandals 
established  themselves  in  his  native  country,  is  unknown. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  singular  kind  of  encyclopaedia,  m  nine 
books,  called  Satna  or  Satiricon,  consisting  partly  of  prose 
and  partly  of  verse,  and  treating  of  the  seven  artes  hberales. 
It  thus  resembles,  in  some  respects,  the  Disdplirm  of  St. 
Au^^ustin.  The  central  subject  is  the  marriage  of  Mercury 
with  the  maiden  Philologia,  at  the  celebration  of  which  the 
seven  arts  appear,  forming,  as  it  were,  the  court  of  Mercury. 
The  first  two  books  describe  the  courtship  of  Mercury,  and 
the  final  yielding  of  Philologia,  who  is  raised  to  the  rank  of 
a  ^roddess.  The  several  arts  are  then  introduced :  Book  111. 
introduces  Grammar,  Book  IV.  Dialectics,  Book  V.  Rhetoric, 

♦  The  best  edition  is  that  of  C.  Lachmann:  Berhn,  1845.     There 
is  also  a  good  text,  by  W.  Frohner,  in  Teubner's  collection. 


A.©.  14-600.]        DtRlNG  THfi   FIFTH  CfeNftRY. 


235 


Book  VI.  Geometry  and  Geography,  Book  VII.  Arithmetic, 
Book  VIII.  Astronomy,  and  Book  IX.  Music.  Some  parts, 
and  more  especially  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  book,  are 
in  verse,  and  in  various  metres,  whereby  the  whole  becomes 
a  tasteless  and  ridiculous  medley.  Varro  seems  to  have  been 
the  writer's  chief  authority.  In  the  book  on  rhetoric  he 
mainly  follows  Aquila  Romanus;  in  that  on  geometry  his 
chief  authorities  are  Solinus  and  Pliny;  and  on  music  he 
follows  Aristides  Quintilianus.  Martianus  Capella  often 
simply  copies  his  authorities,  and  frequently  misunderstands 
them.  In  the  middle  ages  the  work  was  much  used  as  a 
school-book.* 

E.  Latin  Literature  during  the  Fifth  Century 

AFTER  Christ. 

219.  The  fifth  century  witnessed,  thft  ^M\\^\  brpalrinorjT^ 
of  the  Western^Em^ire;  one  province  after  another  fell  into 
the  hands  ot  Ihe  barEanaSs,  and  not  only  Italy,  but  Rome 
itself  was  devastated  by  invading  hordes,  until  at  last,  a.d. 
476,  Odoacer,  a  Teutonic  chief,  gave  the  death-blow  to  the 
western  portion  of  the  empire,  and  was  proclaimed  King  of 
Italy.  Ten  years  later  the  Frank,  Clovis,  also  put  an  end  to 
the  Roman  dominion  in  Gaul,  the  last  province  in  which 
a  Roman  governor  had  maintained  himself.  The  ancient 
civilization  was  stamped  out  so  far  as  it  was  not  adopted  by 
the  conquerors,  and  they  certainly  did  not  always  adopt  the 
best  part  of  it.  The  Latin  language,  however,  continued  to  be 
spoken,  though,  under  the  influence  of  the  ruling  foreigners, 
it  became  more  and  more  deteriorated;  but  literature  still 
continued  to  be  cultivated  to  some  extent,  for  there  were  men 
who  still  cherished  the  recollection  of  the  past,  whose  minds 
drew  nourishment  from  the  literature  of  former  days,  and 
who  preserved  in  their  writings  a  purer  taste;  but  the  power 
of  literary  production  itself  gradually  died  away.  Intellectual 
culture  became  the  exclusive  domain  of  the  priesthood  and 
of  the  monks,  who  made  use[of  it  for  their  own  purposes,  so 
that  aU  literary  productions  assumed  a  theological  colouring, 
even  where  secular  matters  were  treated  of.     The  laity  sank 

*  The  best  text  is  that  edited  by  Fr.  Eissenhardt,  in  Teubner's 
collection.     See  also  C.  Halm's,  Rhetores  Lat.  Min.,  p.  449,  foil. 


236 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN   LiTERATlTRt:.  [PERIOD  V. 


deeper  and  deeper  into  barbarism.  Some  of  the  Teutonic 
courts,  such  as  that  of  the  Visigoths  and  Burgundians,  and 
afterwards  that  of  the  Franks,  became  places  of  refuge  for 
what  still  remained  of  the  spirit  and  literature  of  ancient 
Rome.  The  only  branch  of  learning  which  had  a  kind  of 
revival  during  this  period  was  jurispi-udence,  for  the  neces- 
sity of  devising  an  organization  for  the  states  formed  out  of 
the  fragments  of  the  empire  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  it, 
which  was  manifested  partly  in  collecting  the  old  laws,  and 
partly  in  adapting  them  to  the  new  state  of  things. 

220.  During  the  first  part  of  the  fifth  century  we  still 
meet  with  several  men  who  cultivated  poetry  more  or  less 
successfully.  Foremost  among  these  stands  Rutilius  Numa- 
tianus,  a  native  of  Gaul,  where  Latin  literature  continued 
to  be  cultivated  at  a  time  when  everywhere  else  it  had  nearly 
died  out.  Numatianus,  about  a.d.  '414,  held  several  high 
offices  at  Rome.  We  possess,  by  him,  a  poem,  sometimes 
called  Itinerarium  and  sometimes  De  Reditu  8uo  in  Patriam. 
It  was  written,  a.d.  416,  in  elegiacs;  in  it  the  poet 
describes  his  return  from  Rome  to  his  native  place  in  a 
very  pleasing  and  attractive  manner.  The  journey  was 
probably  imdertaken  because  his  estates  in  Gaul  were  suflfer- 
ing  much  from  the  devastations  of  the  Goths  The  poet 
travelled  by  sea,  starting  from  Ostia.  The  narrative  is  inter- 
spersed with  many  digressions  on  a  variety  of  subjects  and 
rhetorical  eulogies  on  friends.  The  author  was  a  pagan,  and 
very  bitter  against  the  Christians  and  their  asceticism,  and 
in  this  respect  his  poem  is  also  of  historical  value,  as  it  gives 
us  a  picture  of  the  feelings  and  thoughts  entertained  by  the 
class  to  which  the  author  belonged  Otherwise  the  poem  is 
pervaded  by  great  warmth  and  depth  of  feeling.  Unfortun- 
ately, the  greater  part  of  the  second  book  and  the  beginning 
of  the  first  are  lost.* 

221.  Other  poets  of  the  same  period  are : — 

1.  Merobaudes,  a  brave  soldier,  and  an  able  rhetorician  of 
Spain.  Until  recently  we  knew  of  him  only  as  the  author  of 
a  poem,  called  Laus  Christie  in  thirty  hexameters,  which  is 
printed  in  J.  M.  Qesner's  edition  of  Claudian,  p.  710;  but, 

*  There  is  a  good  edition  of  Rutilius  Numatianus,  by  A.  W.  Zumpt: 
Berlin,  1840;  and  a  good  text,  by  L.  Muller,  in  Teubner's  collection. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


OROSIUS. 


237 


in  1823,  Niebuhr  discovered,  in  a  palimpsest  at  St.  Gallen, 
fragments  of  poems  which  he  found  to  belong  to  works  of 
Merobaudes,  and  which  he  published  at  Bonn,  in  1824.  These 
fragments  contain  high-flown  and  rhetorical  eulogies  of  the 
imperial  family  of  Valentinian  III.,  and  of  Aetius;  but  their 
form  is  correct,  and  an  elegant  imitation  of  Claudian. 

2.  Claudius  Marius  Victor  turned  into  verse  the  book  of 
Genesis,  from  the  creation  to  the  destruction  of  Sodom,  which 
he  seems  to  have  written  mainly  to  show  his  orthodoxy.  A 
more  interesting  production  of  his  is  a  letter  to  the  abbot 
Salomon,  in  which  he  describes,  in  105  hexameters,  the  man- 
ners and  conduct  of  men  and  women  in  his  own  time;  the 
subject  is  treated  satirically,  and  the  writer  gives  us  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  morals  of  the  age.  His  works  are  printed  in 
Migne,  Patrol,  Yol.  LXI.,  p.  937,  foil. 

Orientiusy  who  perhaps  belongs  to  the  same  period,  is  the 
author  of  a  work  called  Commonitorium,  in  two  books, 
written  in  elegiacs.  In  it  he  admonishes  his  readers  to  lead 
a  Christian  life.* 

222.  The  presbyter  Orosius,  born  at  Taraco,  in  Spain, 
likewise  belongs  to  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century.  Dis- 
putes among  the  Christian  sects  induced  him  to  go  to  Africa 
to  consult  St.  Augustin,  and  he  afterwards  became  one  of 
the  most  zealous  admirers  of  the  great  bishop.  On  the 
advice  of  St.  Augustin  he  also  visited  Hieronymus,  who  was 
living  in  Palestine.  On  his  return  he  saw  St.  Augustin 
again,  and  it  seems  that  on  his  suggestion  Orosius  undertook 
to  write  a  general  history  from  the  creation  down  to  a.d. 
410,  entitled  Historiarum  libri  VII. ,  Adversus  Paganos, 
This  history  is  of  course  only  a  brief  summary,  and  its  object 
is  to  refute  the  assertion  of  the  pagans  that  the  calamities 
which  came  upon  the  empire  were  the  consequences  of  the 
neglect  of  the  old  religion  and  of  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity. He  points  out  that  calamities  have  occurred  at  all 
times,  and  seems,  in  fact,  to  delight  in  relating  them.  Oro- 
sius had  not  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  study  of 
history;  he  drew  his  information  chiefly  from  Livy  and  from 

*  It  has  been  edited  separately  by  H.  L.  Schurtzfleisch:  Wittem- 
berg,  1706;  and  is  also  contained  in  Migue's  Patrol,  Vol.  LXI.,  p. 
"74,  * 


238 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN    LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


the  chronicle  of  Hieronymus,  and  appears  to  have  composed 
his  work  in  great  haste;  at  least  there  is  no  lack  of  such  errors 
as  are  the  natural  result  of  haste  or  carelessness.  Sometimes 
he  does  little  more  than  transcribe  his  authorities;  but  where 
he  himself  speaks  he  is  rhetorical,  and  delivers  his  opinions 
with  a  sort  of  priestly  unction.  In  the  middle  ages  his  work 
was  extremely  popular,  and  was  looked  upon  as  an  authority ; 
Alfred  the  Great  is  reported  even  to  have  translated  it  into 
Anglo-Saxon.  Besides  this  history  there  exists  a  treatise, 
De  Arhitrii  Lihertate^  which  is  ascribed  to  Orosius  (he  is  said 
to  have  written  it  whilst  staying  in  Palestine),  against  the 
followers  of  Pelagius.* 

Among  the  numerous  other  followers  of  St.  Augustin,  in 
his  contest  with  the  Pelagians,  several  distinguished  them- 
selves by  their  writings,  such  as  Marius  Mercator,  AureliuSj 
bishop  of  Carthage,  and  others.  The  Pelagian  doctrines 
and  monasticism,  however,  had  likewise  able  defenders  in 
men  like  Joannes  Cassianus,  the  rhetorician  VictorinuSj  the 
presbyter  Philippus^  EucheriaSy  and  others. 

In  A.D.  434  Vincentius  of  Lerinum,  in  Gaul,  wrote,  under 
the  name  of  Peregrinus,  a  work  called  Commonitoriunij  t.e., 
an  admonition  to  hold  fast  by  the  Catholic  faith,  as  based 
upon  the  Scriptures  and  tradition,  and  a  warning  against  all 
heresies.  The  work  is  composed  in  simple  and  almost  clas- 
sical language.  The  author,  who  is  himself  half  a  Pelagian, 
considers  St.  Augustin  to  be  too  harsh  and  severe  against 
the  Pelagians. 

Another  zealous  partisan  of  St.  Augustin  was  Prosper,  an 
Aquitanian ;  besides  polemical  works  against  the  Pelagians, 
we  have  by  him  106  epigrams,  embodying  dogmatic  sentences 
from  the  works  of  St.  Augustin,  and  a  chronicle,  which  is 
partly  an  abridgment  and  partly  a  continuation  of  that  of 
Hieronymus,  from  a.d.  379  to  455.  Prosper  further  wrote 
in  A.D.  430,  a  didactic  poem,  J)e  Ingratis,  in  four  parts,  in 
hexameters,  against  Pelagius.  The  language  and  versification 
of  Prosper,  though  not  free  from  faults,  show  that  he  was 
well  acquainted  with  the  pagan  poets.  (See  Wernsdorf's, 
FoetcB  Lat.  Min,,  Vol.  III.,  p.  413,  foil.). 

*  The  best  edition  of  Orosius  is  that  of  Havercamp:  Ley  den,  1738 
and  1767. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


LEO   I. 


239 


223.  One  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best,  writers  of  the  time 
was  the  Roman  bishop  Leo  I.,  commonly  called  the  Great. 
He  was  the  real  founder  of  the  Roman  hierarchy.  In  his 
sermons  no  less  than  in  his  epistles,  we  find  in  him  an  acute 
thinker,  an  able  statesman,  man  of  business,  and  a  writer 
of  almost  classic  purity.  As  a  champion  of  orthodoxy  he  was 
inexorable ;  but  in  matters  of  daily  life  he  was  anything  but  a 
rigorist  or  a  pedant.  There  are  extant  ninety-six  sermons 
and  173  epistles,  which  extend  over  the  period  from  a.d. 
442  to  460.  His  works,  like  those  of  other  ecclesiastical 
writers,  are  contained  in  the  collections  of  Gallandi,  and  the 
more  recent  one  of  Migne. 

To  the  same  period  belongs  the  presbyter  Salvianus  of 
Massilia,  who,  among  other  things,  wrote  a  work  in  four 
books  against  avarice;  another,  De  Gubernatione  Dei,  in 
eight  books,  in  which  he  endeavours  to  show  that  the  mis- 
fortunes of  the  time  are  well-deserved  divine  punishments. 
Besides  these  works  there  are  extant  nine  epistles.  All 
his  works  are  not  only  of  great  interest  in  regard  to  the 
history  of  the  time,  but  are  well  wi-itten,  though,  according 
to  the  general  character  of  the  age,  not  free  from  difi'useness 
and  rhetorical  exaggeration. 

224.  The  year  a.d.  438  is  memorable  in  the  history  of 
jurisprudence,  for  in  it  was  published  at  Constantinople,'and 
sanctioned  by  Valentinian,  the  Codex  Theodosianus.  A 
commission  of  learned  jurists  had  been  engaged  upon  it  for 
eight  years.  It  consists  of  sixteen  books,  and  contains  the 
official  collection  of  imperial  constitutions  from  the  time  of 
Constantino,  in  chronological  order.  In  the  eastern  empire 
this  code  remained  in  force  until  it  was  incorporated  with 
and  supplemented  by  that  of  Justinian.  In  the  west  it  was 
80on  abridged,  and  of  the  fii-st  third  we  now  possess  only 
that  abridgment.* 

After  the  publication  of  this  code,  and  perhaps  before 
the  death  of  Theodosius,  in  a.d.  450,  there  was  drawn  up 
in  Gaul  what  is  called  the  Consultation  i.e.,  opinions  ex- 
pressed by  jurists  on  being  consulted.  In  these  opinions 
the  laws  referred  to  are  quoted  verbatim  from  the  Codex 

*  The  best  edition  of  what  remains  of  the  Codex  Theodosianus  is 
that  of  G.  Haenel:  Bonn,  1837. 


240 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN  LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


GregorianuSf  the  Codex  HermogenianuSf  and  the  Codex 
Theodosianus. 

225.  Rhetoric  still  continued  to  be  cultivated  in  Gaul 
more  than  anywhere  else ;  but  its  productions  were  poor  in 
thought,  and  remarkable  only  for  their  elaborate  and  artifi- 
cial style,  their  pompous  panegyi-ics  and  flatteries.  The  most 
gifted  representative  of  this  Gallic  literature  was  C.  Sollius 
Apollinaris  Sidonius,  bom  about  a.d.  430.  He  belonged 
to  an  illustrious  Gallic  family,  and  during  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  Bishop  of  Claremont,  in  which  capacity  he 
w^as  the  leader  of  the  expedition  against  the  Goths.  He  died 
about  A.D.  487,  leaving  behind  him  several  works,  of  which 
we  still  possess  a  collection  of  twenty-four  poems,  and  nine 
books  of  epistles  containing  147  letters,  some  of  which  are  in 
verse.  In  one  of  these  letters  he  gives  an  account  of  his 
own  life  and  literary  pursuits.  The  longest  of  his  poems  are 
of  an  epic  character,  and  are  written  in  praise  of  his  father- 
in-law,  of  Majorian,  and  Anthemius.  All  his  writings  are 
overloaded  with  a  display  of  learning  and  conventional 
phrases.  His  poetical  productions  are  composed  partly  in 
hexameters  and  partly  in  elegiacs,  or  in  hendecasyllables, 
which  was  then  becoming  a  favourite  metre.  The  epistles, 
which  are  written  on  the  model  of  those  of  Pliny  and  Sym- 
machus,  bring  very  vividly  before  us  the  mild,  good-natured, 
but  exceedingly  vain  character  of  the  author;  and  many  of 
them  are  real  panegyrics  on  those  to  whom  they  are  addressed. 
It  is  evident  that  Apollinaris  Sidonius  was  well  acquainted 
with  the  classical  literature  of  Rome.  His  works  are  printed 
in  the  collections  of  ecclesiastical  writers  by  Gallandi  and 
Migne. 

Among  the  friends  of  Apollinaris  Sidonius  who  tried  their 
powers  in  literature,  we  have  to  notice — 

1.  Rusticius  ElpiditLS  Domnulus,  the  author  of  some  Chris- 
tian poems  in  hexameters  which  are  still  extant  and  are 
printed  in  G.  Fabricius's  Corpus  Poetarum  Christy  p.  754, 
foil. 

2.  Mamertus  Claudianus^  a  presbyter  of  Vienne,  who, 
about  A.D.  470,  wrote  a  work,  Le  Statu  AnimcBy  dedicated 
to  Apollinaris  Sidonius,  hymns,  and  other  poems. 

3.  FaustuSy  bishop  of  Reii,  is  the  author  of  a  work,  Bq  Bd 


A.D.  14-600.] 


PAULINUS. 


241 


Gratiay  in  two  books,  of  letters,  sermons,  etc.  His  writings, 
like  those  of  many  of  his  contemporaries,  were  occupied  with 
the  question  about  man's  free  will  (liberum  arbitrium),  about 
divine  grace,  and  about  the  person  of  Christ.  Other  ecclesi- 
astics published  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  sermons, 
and  the  like, 

226.  Towards  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  we  meet  with  a 
poet  of  considerable  merit  of  the  name  of  Sedulius,  who 
wrote,  in  hexameters,  the  history  of  the  New  Testament, 
under  the  title  of  Paschale  Carmen^  in  four,  or,  according 
to^  another  division,  in  five  books.  The  first  describes  the 
miracles  of  the  Old  Testament  as  an  introduction  to  the  his- 
tory of  Christ ;  the  second  and  following  books  contain  the 
history  of  Christ  from  his  birth  to  his  ascension.  The  whole 
is  written  in  the  usual  rhetorical  style,  and  evidently  in  imi- 
tation of  Vergil.  Sedulius  afterwards  wrote  on  the  same 
subject  in  prose,  which  is  more  rhetorical  and  less  natural 
than  the  narrative  in  verse.  There  further  exists  under  his 
name  an  elegy  on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  a  hymn 
on  Christ  in  iambic  dimeters.* 

Other  poets  of  the  same  period  are : — 

1.  Auspidus,  bishop  of  Toul  about  a.d.  470,  is  the  author 
of  a  metrical  epistle  to  Arbogastes,  in  which  quantity  is  alto- 
gether neglected  and  no  care  is  taken  to  avoid  the  hiatus;  it 
is  composed  entirely  according  to  the  common  pronunciation 
and  accent.     Of  a  similar  kind  are  the  productions  of 

2.  AmoenuSy  who  drew  up  a  manual  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  history  in  hexameters,  wrote  an  epic  poem  on  St. 
Martin  of  Tours,  and  other  poems,  of  which  fragments  ai^e 
still  extant. 

3.  PaulinuSy  of  Perigueux,  lived  about  a.d.  470,  and 
wrote  an  epic  poem  on  the  life  of  St.  Martin,  in  six  books, 
which,  in  matters  of  form,  is  pretty  correct ;  but  the  author 
has  recourse  to  certain  artificial  devices,  which  are  not  im- 
provements. As  to  the  subject  of  the  poem,  he  follows 
Sulpicius  Severus,  but  expands  the  legends  about  the  saint. 

4.  Bracontius  is  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem,  in  three 
books,  on  subjects  taken  from  the  Old  Testament ;  the  first 
describes  the  creation,  the  second  the  flood ;  the  third  is  of 

*  The  best  edition  of  Sedulius  is  that  of  F.  Arevali:  Rome,  1794. 


/ 


242 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


a  dogmatic  character,  with  proofs  derived  partly  from  Bibli- 
cal and  partly  from  Roman  history.*  There  is  another  poem 
of  Dracontius,  called  Satisfaction  in  elegiacs,  in  which  he 
humbly  pi-ays  a  Yandal  king  to  forgive  his  having  written 
in  praise  of  one  who  is  that  king's  enemy.  Dracontius 
appears  to  have  been  well  versed  in  classical  as  well  as  in 
Biblical  literature. 

5.  Avitus,  bishop  of  Vienne,  who  died  in  A.D.  523,  com- 
posed in  hexameters  a  work,  in  five  books,  on  the  creation, 
original  sin,  God's  curse,  the  flood,  and  th»^  passage  of  the 
Israelites  through  the  Bed  Sea. 

6.  Flavins  Felix,  an  African  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  the 
Vandal  king,  Thrasamund  (a.d.  496-523),  is  the  author  of  a 
number  of  epigrams  which  are  printed  in  Biese's  Anthol. 
Latina. 

7.  Coroiiatus,  author  of  a  few  poems  printed  in  the  same 
Anthology. 

8.  LuxoriuSj  author  of  several  lascivious  epigrams  in  imi- 
tation of  Martial.  The  author  must  have  been  a  pagan  (see 
Biese's  Anthology). 

9.  Florentinus,  of  whom  we  have  a  fragment  of  thii-ty-nine 
hexameters  in  praise  of  King  Pharamund,  which  is  likewise 
printed  in  Biese's  Anthology. 

227.  While  most  ecclesiastical  writers  confined  themselves 
to  Biblical,  dogmatical,  and  controversial  writings,  or  to 
legends  about  saints,  few  only  turned  their  attention  to 
history.  One  of  these  few  was  Gennadius,  a  presbyter  of 
Massilia,  who,  besides  many  theological  works,  wrote  a  con- 
tinuation of  Hieronymus'  work,  De  Viris  IllustribuSy  and 
brought  it  down  to  A.D.  495.  It  treats,  of  course,  only  of 
ecclesiastical  writei-s ;  but  is  nevertheless  of  great  value  in 
regard  to  the  history  of  the  time.  The  same  work  was 
afterwards  continued  by  Isidorus. 

Other  writers  on  historical  subjects  were — 

1.   Victor   Vitensis,  probably  a  native   of  Africa,  wrote, 

about  A.D.  488,  a  history  of  the  persecutions  sufiered  by  the 

orthodox  church  at  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  who  were 

Arians.     The  author  evidently  writes,  with  deep  feeling  and 

*  There  is  a  separate  edition  of  this  work  by  C.  E.  Glseser:  Bre3- 
lau,  18i7  and  1848. 


A.B.  14-600.]   FABIUS  PLANCIADES  FULGENTIUS. 


248 


animation,  of  scenes  which  he  himself  had  witnessed,  but  hia 
language  is  barbarous. 

2.  Idaciiis,  a  Spaniard,  wrote  a  chronicle  beginning  with 
A.D.  379,  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  and  ending 
in  A.D.  469,  the  third  year  of  Valentinian.  The  author 
bestows  special  care  on  the  history  of  Spain,  and  evidently 
tells  the  truth  where  he  is  not  blinded  by  superstition.  To 
him  is  also  ascribed  a  list  of  the  Boman  consuls  from 
the  beginning  of  the  republic  down  to  A.D.  468,  interspersed 
with  historical  remarks  chiefly  taken  from  Livy ;  but  it  is 
very  doubtful  whether  it  is  the  work  of  Idacius. 

228.  Among  the  grammarians  of  this  period  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  vain  Fabius  Planciades  Fulgentius,  pro- 
bably a  native  of  Africa,  who  flourished  about  a.d.  500. 
He  wrote  several  controversial  works,  but  the  three  works 
which  are  of  interest  to  us  here  are — 1 .  Mythologicon  lihri 
III.,  which  is  full  of  the  most  absurd  and  arbitrary  explana- 
tions of  the  ancient  myths.  2.  Vergiliana  Continentia,  an 
allegorical  explanation  of  Vergil's  ^neid,  in  which  Vergil 
himself  is  made  to  expound  the  views  of  Fulgentius.  3.  De 
Ahstrusis  Sermonihus,  contains  explanations  of  sixty-three 
obsolete  and  rare  words,  which  are  arranged  without  any 
order  or  system ;  and  the  author  refers  to  authorities,  many 
of  which  never  existed,  to  make  his  readers  believe  that  he 
was  a  man  of  most  extensive  reading.  The  style  of  Fulgen- 
tius is  modelled  on  that  of  Apuleius  and  Martianus  Capella; 
but  the  language  is  so  bombastic  that  it  is  often  difficult  to 
arrive  at  its  real  meaning.* 

There  is  an  ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  name  of  Fulgentius, 
who,  in  A.D.  508,  was  Bishop  of  Buspe,  in  Africa,  and  is  the 
author  of  numerous  theological  works*  that  are  still  extant, 
and  are  written  in  a  very  dry  and  unattractive  style.  Under 
his  name  we  also  have  an  historical  work,  De  jEtatilms 
Mundi,  which  seems  to  have  consisted  of  twenty-three  books, 
but  of  which  only  the  first  fourteen  are  extant.  The  work 
is  of  but  little  historical  value;  the  greater  part  of  it  is 
devoted  to  Biblical  history,  then  follows  that  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  the  history  of  Borne,  the  substance  of  the  four 

The  three  works  of  Fulgentius  are  printed  in  A  van  Staveren's 
Auctores  Mythographi  Latini :  Leyden,  174 J, 


/ 


244 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


Gospels,  the  history  of  the  Apostles,  and  last,  that  of  the 
Roman  emperors.  The  style  of  the  work  is  very  like  that  of 
the  grammarian  Fulgentius,  and  it  has  been  supposed  by  some 
to  be  a  work  of  the  latter.* 

229.  Other  grammarians  who  flourished  about  the  same 
time,  and  whose  extant  works  are  published  in  the  collections 
of  Putschius  and  Keil,  are — 

1.  Cledcmius,  a  Roman  senator  and  teacher  of  grammar  at 
Constantinople,  wrote  a  commentary  on  theirs  (Grammatica) 
of  Donatus. 

2.  Pompeiics,  a  Mauretanian,  is  likewise  the  author  of  a 
Commentum  Artis  Bonati,  and  a  smaller  one  on  Donatus' 
work,  De  Barharismis  et  Metaplasmis. 

3.  CoTisentiuSj  a  Gaul,  author  of  a  grammatical  work,  of 
which  two  parts.  Be  Nomine  et  Verbo  and  Be  Barbarismis 
et  3Ietaplasmis,  are  still  extant.  They  seem  to  have  originally 
been  only  parts  of  a  complete  work  on  grammar. 

4.  Fhocas,  called  Grammaticus  XJrbis  Romge,  is  the  author 
of  an  Ars  (Grammatica),  written  partly  in  prose  and  partly 
in  verse,  and  of  a  life  of  Vergil,  mainly  derived  from  that 
of  Donatus.  Under  his  name  we  also  liave  a  work,  Be 
Aspiratione,  which,  however,  is  probably  the  production  of 
a  much  later  writer. 

5.  RufinuLS  of  Antioch,  the  author  of  a  Commentarius  in 
Metra  Terentiana  and  a  treatise  on  the  metres  of  orators ; 
both  of  them  are  written  partly  in  verse  and  partly  in  prose. 
They  are  printed  in  Gaisford's  Scriptores  Rei  Metrics,  p.  388, 
foU.j  see  also  Halm's  Rhet.res  Lat.^  p.  575,  foil. 

F.  Latin  Literature  during  the  Sixth  Century 

AFTER  Christ. 

230.  The  kingdom  established  in  Italy  by  Odoacer  did  not 
last  long,  for,  in  a.d.  489,  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  in- 
vaded Italy;  in  A.  D.  493  he  put  to  death  Odoacer  at  Ravenna, 
and,  with  the  consent  of  Zeno,  emperor  of  the  East,  founded 
a  new  kingdom  of  Italy.  Under  him  the  country  enjoyed 
the  blessings  of  peace  for  about  thirty  years,  from  A.D.  493 
to  526,  during  which  we  meet  with  some  distinguished  repre- 
sentatives of  Latin  literature,  such  as  Boetius  and  Cassio- 

*  There  is  a  separate  edition  of  it  by  J.  Hommey:  Paris,  1C96. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


BOETIUS. 


245 


dorus.  But  under  Theodoric's  feeble  successors  the  country 
was  again  exposed  to  perpetual  ravages,  and  the  last  traces 
of  intellectual  activity  disappeared,  not  only  in  Italy,  but 
also  in  those  countries  of  the  west  which  had  been  provinces 
of  the  empire,  though  in  Gaul  a  certain  taste  for  literature 
lingered  on  longest.  In  oratory  we  have  only  hollow  decla- 
mation ;  history,  where  it  was  cultivated,  produced  nothing 
but  compilations  and  abridgments  of  earlier  works;  juris- 
prudence, also,  could  do  little  more  than  collect  and  modify 
the  works  of  former  times.  The  many  attempts  to  frame 
codes  of  laws  at  last,  in  the  reign  of  Justinian  (a.d.  527-565), 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  famous  "  Corpus  Juris  "  for  the 
whole  empire.  Otherwise  literature  was  now  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  priests,  who,  with  very  few  exceptions,  neglected 
the  ancient  literature,  and  confined  themselves  to  theological 
or  ecclesiastical  questions. 

231.  One  of  the  few  eminent  men  during  the  first  part  of 
the  sixth  century  was  Boetius,  with  his  full  name,  Anicius 
Manlius  Torquatus  Severinus  Boetius,  or  Boethius.  He 
belonged  to  an  illustrious  family  of  Rome,  where  he  was 
born  between  a.d.  475  and  480.  Being  of  a  noble  family 
and  a  man  of  high  intellectual  culture,  he  was  at  an  early 
age  raised  to  high  honours,  and  obtained  the  consulship  in 
A.D.  510.  Theodoric  often  availed  himself  of  his  great 
talents;  but  when,  a.d.  520,  the  Eastern  emperor  Justin 
issued  his  edict  against  the  Arians,  Theodoric,  who  was 
himself  an  Arian,  like  all  the  Goths,  began  to  distrust  the 
Romans,  who  were  Catholics.  When,  therefore,  Boetius, 
who  was  then  magister  officionim,  undertook  the  defence  of 
the  senator  Albinus,  who  was  accused  of  keeping  up  a  trea- 
sonable correspondence  with  the  Emperor  of  the  East,  the 
enemies  of  Boetius  took  the  opportunity  of  exciting  the  sus- 
picion of  Theodoric  against  him.  They  accused  him  of 
having  connections  with  evil  spirits,  of  sorcery,  and  of  har- 
bouring republican  sentiments,  which  last  point  they  proved 
by  forged  letters.  The  accusation  seemed  to  be  confirmed, 
in  the  eyes  of  the  suspicious  king,  by  the  fact  that, 
throughout  his  life,  Boetius  had  shown  great  patriotism  and 
independence  of  mind.  Theodoric,  in  order  to  make  an 
example  and  to  frighten  the  senators  whom  he  suspected, 


^46 


HISTORY  OF   LATIK   LITERATUHE.  [pERIOD  V. 


ordered  Boetius  to  be  arrested  and  imprisoned  at  Pavia,  and 
the  senate,  in  its  servility,  condemned  him  to  death  without 
a  trial.  His  property  was  confiscated,  and  he  was  executed 
A.D.  525.  All  his  contemporaries  speak  highly  of  his  learn- 
ing, and  of  his  noble  and  unselfish  character.  His  death,  by 
the  order  of  an  heretical  king,  soon  threw  round  him  the 
halo  of  a  Christian  martyr.  Boetius  was  indeed  a  Christian; 
but  with  him,  as  with  other  patriotic  men  of  the  time,  there 
remained  a  considerable  residue  of  paganism,  which  was  kept 
alive  by  the  study  of  the  classical  literature  of  their  fore- 
fathers, an  I  by  their  enthusiasm  for  the  past  greatness  of 
their  country.  The  most  celebrated  among  the  works  of 
Boetius  is  the  De  Consolatione  Philosophice,  in  five  books, 
written  during  his  confinement  in  prison.  Philosophy  is 
supposed  to  appear  to  the  prisoner,  and  to  console  him  in  his 
misfortune.  The  reasons  which  she  brings  forward  are 
purely  philosophical,  and  none  are  derived  from  the  Christian 
religion,  nor  does  he  allude  to  it  in  any  way ;  but  we  every- 
where see  evidence  of  a  noble  mind  striving  after  what  is 
highest  HI  humanity,  and  sometimes  even  the  expression  of 
a  truly  religious  spiiit.  He  never  quotes  any  of  the  Chris- 
tian writers,  but  frequently  refera  to  Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero, 
and  Seneca.  The  work  is  composed  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue, 
and  poetry  in  difierent  metres  is  interspersed  in  various 
parts;  the  metres  are  not  always  quite  correct,  but  the  verses 
show  the  author's  skill  and  talent.  The  language  is  not  free 
from  the  rhetorical  mannerism  of  the  time,  but  is  tempered 
by  tlic  author's  correct  reasoning.  The  popularity  of  the 
work,  during  the  middle  ages,  is  attested  by  its  translation 
into  Anglo-Saxon,  ascribed  to  Alfred  the  Great.* 

The  other  works  of  Boetius  are  on  rhetoric,  philosophy, 
and  mathematics.  They  are : — 1.  Dialogi  Duo  hi  Porphyrium 
a  Victorino  Translatum,  2.  Commentariorum  in  Porphyrium 
a  se  Translatum  libri  quinque.  3.  Translations  and  com- 
mentaries on  Aristotle's  Categorice,  in  four  books ;  also,  on 
other  works  of  Aristotle.  4.  A  commentary  on  Cicero's 
Topica.  5.  De  Syllogismo  Categorico,  in  two  books  6.  De 
Syllogismo  Ilypothetico,  in  two  books.  7.  De  Divisione,  de 
DeJlnitio7iefde  Differ  entiis  Topicis  fin  four  hooks.  8.  DeMuMca, 

*  The  best  edition  of  the  original  is  that  of  Obbarius :  Jena,  1843. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


MAGNUS  FELIX  ENNODIUS. 


247 


in  five  books ;  De  Arithmetical  in  two  books ;  and  lastly,  a 
translation  of  Euclid's  geometry,  in  two  books. 

Formerly  certain  theological  works  were  also  ascribed  to 
Boetius,  but  they  are  now  generally  admitted  to  be  the  jn-o- 
ductions  of  a  much  later  time.* 

232.  Magnus  Felix  Ennodius,  a  contemporary  of  Boetius, 
was  a  native  of  Gaul  and  bishop  of  Pavia.  He  was  born 
about  A.D.  473,  and  was  early  left  as  a  poor  orphan,  who 
owed  everything  to  the  kindness  of  an  aunt ;  but  he  mar- 
ried a  rich  lady,  and  after  having  squandered  her  property 
he  became  a  priest,  and  his  wife  withdrew  into  a  convent. 
In  A.D.  511  he  became  bishop  of  Pavia,  and  was  employed  on 
sundry  important  missions  by  the  bishop  of  Borne.  He 
died  A.D.  521.  Ennodius  is  the  author  of  numerous  works 
both  in  prose  and  in  verse. 

1.  Vita  Beati  Epiphanii,  a  biography  of  Epiphanius,  his 
predecessor  in  the  see  of  Pavia. 

2.  A  Panegyric  on  Theodoricy  full  of  the  most  abject  flat- 
tery, in  an  intolerably  bombastic  style;  it  was  composed 
about  A.D.  507. 

3.  Epistolcdy  in  nine  books,  containing  297  letters,  some 
of  which  are  addressed  to  persons  in  high  positions;  but 
public  afiairs  are  never  discussed  in  them,  and  their  style  is 
full  of  rhetorical  afiectation. 

4.  Poems,  in  two  books,  without  any  poetical  value ;  they 
are  mostly  mere  hollow  phrases,  without  substance.  Some 
of  the  longer  pieces  contain  accounts  of  journeys  and  an  epi- 
thalamium ;  the  divinities  of  pagan  mythology  are  frequently 
mentioned,  but  only  as  a  matter  of  form,  just  as  a  modern 
poet  may  invoke  the  muses.  The  poems  are  written  in  all 
kinds  of  metres,  and  some  of  them  are  scarcely  worth  pre- 
serving. It  should  be  stated  that  Ennodius  also  wrote 
letters  and  sermons  for  other  priests,  even  for  bishops,  which 
is  a  curious  sign  of  the  times.! 

233.  Priscianus,  the  most  celebrated  of  ancient   grani- 

*  The  best  edition  of  all  Boetius'  works  is  still  that  of  Glareanus: 
Basle,  1570.  The  commentary  on  Cicero's  Topica  is  printed  in 
Orelli's  edition  of  Cicero,  Vol.  V. 

t  The  works  of  Ennodius  have  been  edited  by  J.  Sirmond:  Paris, 
1611;  and  are  also  contained  in  Migne'a  Patrol,  Vol.  LXIIL,  p.  13, 
foU. 


/ 


248 


HISTORY  OP  LATIN  LITERATURE.         [PERIOD  V« 


mai-ians,  was  a  native  of  Caesarea,  in  Mauretania,  but  lived 
as  a  teacher  at  Constantinople  in  the  reign  of  Anastasius 
(a.d.  491-518).  Though  he  lived  and  taught  in  the  Greek 
capital  of  the  east,  his  works  are  devoted  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  Latin  language  and  literature.  His  Latin  grammar, 
called  Institutiones  GrammaticcBf  in  eighteen  books,  is  the 
most  complete  system  of  Latin  grammar  that  has  come  down 
to  us  from  antiquity,  and  has  exercised  an  influence  upon  the 
construction  of  Latin  grammars  which  is  still  felt.  His  work 
is  valuable  to  us,  more  especially  on  account  of  the  numerous 
quotations  from  the  earlier  Latin  literature.  It  is  based  in 
the  main  on  the  best  Greek  grammarians,  particularly  Apol- 
lonius  Dyscolus,  in  consequence  of  which  his  arrangement 
differs  in  several  points  from  the  works  of  his  predecessors, 
whose  labours,  however,  he  has  not  neglected.  His  style  is 
very  diffuse,  and  of  the  classical  arrangement  of  words  in  a 
sentence  he  seems  to  have  scarcely  any  idea.  During  the 
middle  ages  the  grammar  of  Priscian  was  the  standard  book, 
whence  it  was  very  frequently  copied  and  epitomised.* 
Other  grammatical  works  of  Priscian  are  : — 

1.  Be  Duodecim  Versihus  jEneidos  Principalibus,  a  metrical 
and  grammatical  analysis  of  the  verses  of  Vergil,  in  the  form 
of  questions  and  answers. 

2.  De  Accentibus  is  commonly  ascribed  to  Priscian,  but  is 
probably  the  production  of  a  much  later  time. 

3.  De  Figuris  Numerorum  et  de  Numis  vel  Poiiderihus  is 
a  short  treatise  on  the  figures  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  express  numbers,  on  coins,  and  weights. 

4.  De  Metris  Terentii  Aliorumque  Gomicorum. 

5.  De  Frceexercitamentis  Eketoricce  is  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Progymnasmata  of  the  Greek  rhetorician  Hermogenes. 

6.  A  Latin  translation  of  Diony sins'  Periegesis,  under  the 
title  of  De  Orbis  Situ,  in  1086  hexameters.  All  these  works 
were  intended  as  school-books,  by  means  of  which  Priscian 
tried  to  keep  alive  the  study  of  the  classical  writers.  They 
are  all  printed  in  Krehl's  edition  of  Priscian,  and  also  in 
Keil's  collection  of  Latin  Grammarians. 

7.  A  panegyric  on  the  Emperor  Anastasius,  in  hexameters, 

*  A  good  edition  of  it  is  that  by  A.  Krehl:  Leipzig,  1819,  in  2 
vols. ;  it  is  also  contained  in  Keil's  Collect,  of  Lat.  Gram, 


A.D.  14-600.]  M.   AUrELIUS  CASSIOBORUS. 


249 


with  an  iambic  introduction.  This  work,  which  is  very  tame 
and  dry,  has  been  discovered  during  the  present  century, 
and  been  published  by  Endlicher ;  Vienna,  1828. 

Eutyches,  one  of  Priscian's  pupils,  is  the  author  of  several 
grammatical  works,  which  he  wrote  even  during  the  lifetime 
of  his  master.  One,  entitled  Ars  de  Verbo,  in  two  books, 
has  come  down  to  us.  In  composing  it  Eutyches  made  use 
of  the  works  of  Priscian,  as  well  as  of  earlier  authorities. 
His  work,  and  those  of  some  other  grammarians,  such  as 
Asper,  Audax,  and  Vergilius,  who  are  much  inferior  to  any- 
thing that  Priscian  or  his  school  had  produced,  are  printed 
in  Keil's  collection. 

234.  Magnus  Aurelius  Cassiodorus  and  Boetius  are  the 
two  most  eminent  men  in  literature  during  this  century. 
Cassiodorus,  belonging  to  an  illustrious  and  wealthy  family 
of  Bruttium,  was  born  about  a.d.  480,  and  was  as  distin- 
guished by  his  own  worth  and  learning  as  by  the  high 
oflaces  with  which  he  was  entrusted  by  successive  sove- 
reigns; the  consulship,  the  highest  of  all,  he  obtained 
under  Theodoric  in  a.d.  514.  As  the  king's  private  secre- 
tary he  had,  in  fact,  for  a  time,  the  management  of  all  the 
affairs  of  the  kingdom.  After  the  fall  of  Vitiges,  A.D.  540, 
Cassiodorus  withdrew  from  public  life  into  the  monastery 
of  Vivarium,  in  Bruttium,  which  he  himself  had  founded, 
and  died  there,  a.d.  575,  at  a  very  advanced  age.  His  lite- 
rary productions,  like  his  life,  are  naturally  divided  into  two 
parts,  viz.,  those  which  belong  to  the  period  of  his  political 
activity,  and  those  which  he  wrote  during  his  retirement, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  theological  and  gi-ammatical 
pursuits.  To  the  first  period  belong  several  speeches,  but 
more  especially  the  following  works  : — 

1.  Chronica,  containing  the  histoiy  of  the  world  from 
Adam  to  A.D.  519.  By  far  the  greater  part  is  a  compilation 
from  earlier  works  of  the  same  kind;  but  from  a.d.  496  the 
chronicle  is  his  own.  But  this  last  part  is  poor,  and  written 
in  a  sort  of  official  court  style.  The  whole  compilation  also 
contains  many  serious  errora.  It  has  been  edited  by  Th. 
Mommsen :  Leipzig,  1861. 

2.  Historia  Gothorum  would  be  of  much  gi-eater  interest 
if  we  possessed  it  in  its  original  form;  but,  unfortunately, 


250 


HISTORY   Of   LATIN    LITERATURE.  [pERIOD  V. 


/ 


we  have  only  an  epitome  of  it,  made  by  Jordanis,  which 
epitome  has  probably  caused  the  loss  of  the  original. 

3.  Variorum  libA  XII.,  is  by  far  the  most  important  of 
his  works.  The  first  five  books  contain  ordinances,  decrees, 
and  other  ofiicial  documents,  which  Cassiodorus  drew  up 
and  issued  in  the  name  of  King  Theodoric ;  the  following 
books  contain  those  issued  in  the  names  of  Theodoric's  suc- 
cessors; but  the  last  two  contain  the  correspondence  of 
Cassiodorus,  and  the  decrees  which  he  published  in  his  own 
name  as  prsefectus  praetorio.  The  latest  of  these  documents 
refers  to  the  year  A.D.  538.  They  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  those  who  wish  to  study  the  history  of  Italy 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Goths.  They  are  written  in  a 
conventional  official  style,  but  not  without  a  cei-tain  degi-ee 
of  elegance..,.^^  .-» 

After  his  a^ption'of  the  monastic  life  he  wrote  a  series 
of  theological  and  grammatical  works,  evidently  with  the 
view  of  promoting  the  study  of  the  ancient  classics,  as  well 
as  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  The  more  interesting  of  this 
class  of  works  are — 

1.  Lectiones  Divince,  in  two  books;  in  them  he  points  out 
to  his  brotter  monks  the  books,  both  religious  and  secular, 
which  he  recommends  them  to  read  and  study. 

2.  A  brief  explanation  of  the  seven  liberal  arts,  under  the 
title  of  Institutiones  Divinarum  et  scecularium  litterarum. 
We  do  not  possess  this  work  complete;  rhetoric  is  treated  in 
it  more  fully  than  the  other  subjects  (this  part  is  printed  in 
Halm's  lihetores  Lat.  Min.y  p.  495). 

3.  Several  treatises  on  grammar  and  orthography.  All 
these  works  he  composed  from  a  desii-e  to  preserve  a  taste  for 
learning  and  mental  culture,  which  he  saw  was  disappearing 
more  and  more.  His  own  style  has  all  the  faults  of  the  age. 
All  his  works  are  collected  in  Migne's  Patrol,  Vols.  LXIX. 
and  LXX. 

235.  To  draw  up  chronicles,  to  continue  them,  or  to  make 
epitomes  of  them,  and  to  write  lives  of  the  saints  seems  to 
have  been  the  only  kind  of  historical  writing  that  was  popu- 
lar during  this  period.  Among  writers  of  this  class  we  have 
to  mention: — 

1.  Marcellinus,  who  wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  eastern  empire, 


A.D.  14-600.] 


JORDANIS. 


251 


from  A.D.  379  to  534,  in  four  books,  which  was  continued  by 
subsequent  editors  down  to  a.d.  566.  It  is  in  this  extended 
form  that  the  chronicle  of  Marcellinus  has  come  down  to  us. 
It  is  printed  in  Migne's  Patrol.,  Vol.  LI.,  p.  917,  foil. 

2.  Victor,  bishop  of  Tunnuna,  in  Africa,  compiled  a  chro- 
nicle from  the  beginning  of  the  world  down  to  the  first  year 
of  the  Emperor  Justin's  reign,  a.d.  566.  Of  this  work  only 
the  last  part,  from  a.d.  444,  is  now  extant,  and  from  that 
date  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  chronicle  of  Prosper.  In 
recording  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Africa,  Victor  is  very 
minute,  and  apparently  very  accurate  and  truthful.  It  is 
printed  in  JVIigne's  Patrol,  Vol.  LXVIII.,  p.  937,  foil.  The 
chronicle  ot  Prosper  was  also  continued  by  Marius,  bishop  of 
Avrenches,  in  Gaul,  for  the  period  from  A.D.  455  to  581. 

3.  The  Gothic  bishop,  Joannes,  wrote  a  chronicle  of  his 
own  time  from  a.d.  565  to  590.  He  had  learned  Latin  and 
Greek  at  Constantinople,  and  afterwards  founded  a  monas- 
tery called  Biclaro,  whence  he  is  sometimes  designated  as 
Joannes  Biclarensis. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  Goth  Jordanis, 
also  called  Jordanus  or  Jornandes,  wrote  two  historical 
works : — 

1.  De  Pehus  Geticis,  or  De  Getarum  sive  Gothorum  Origins 
et  Pehus  Gestis,  which  in  reality  is  a  mere  abridgment  of  the 
work  of  Cassiodorus  on  the  same  subject.  Jordanis  only 
made  a  few  additions  from  the  works  of  Mela  and  Orosius. 
The  many  errors  which  occur  in  this  epitome  are  probably 
owing  to  the  haste  and  carelessness  with  which  Jordanis 
put  together  the  materials  he  found  in  his  authorities.  The 
whole  is  a  rudis  indigestaque  moles,  and  yet  we  ought  to  be 
grateful  for  its  preservation,  as  the  original  of  Cassiodorus 
is  lost.  There  is  a  separate  edition  of  it  by  C.  A.  Closs; 
Stuttgart,  1861. 

2.  De  Origine  Mmidi,  or  De  Breviatione  Chronicorum, 
which  is  a  brief  summaiy  of  universal  history,  compiled 
from  the  most  common  sources,  and  extending  from  the 
creation  to  A. D.  551.  A  separate  edition  of  it  was  published 
by  F.  Lindenbrog:  Hamburg,  1611. 

236.  A  few  writers  following  the  example  set  by  Cassio- 
dorus in  his  history  of  the  Goths  composed  special  histories* 


252 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V. 


M 


Foremost  among  them  stands  Gregorius  of  Tours  with  his 
history  of  the  Franks.  His  proper  name  was  Gregorius 
Florentius.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  Auvergne, 
and  was  bom  about  a.d.  540.  In  a.d.  573  he  became  bishop 
of  Tours,  and  died  there  a.d.  594.  In  his  history  of  the 
Franks,  which  consists  of  ten  books,  he  makes  no  claims 
either  to  literary  merit  or  to  any  extensive  knowledge  of 
profane  history;  but  he  appears  to  have  been  engaged  upon 
it,  with  various  interruptions,  from  a.d.  577  to  590.  The 
author  is  very  anxious  not  to  be  thought  heretical  in  his 
opinions,  the  church  is  to  him  everything;  and  any  miracle 
that  is  reported  finds  in  him  a  ready  believer,  but  he  is 
nevertheless  very  desirous  to  tell  the  truth,  and  frankly 
censures  the  vices  of  the  clergy.  Besides  this  work,  which 
is  to  us  of  great  historical  importance,  Gregorius  wrote 
treatises  on  various  theological  and  ecclesiastical  siibjects, 
as  on  the  miracles  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Apostles,  and  other 
martyrs,  in  eight  books;  on  the  virtues  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours;  on  the  virtues  of  St.  Julian  the  martyr;  on  the  lives 
of  several  other  saints,  etc.  All  these  works  are  printed  in 
Migne's  Pairol,  Yol.  LXXI. 

The  Briton  GildaSj  who  flourished  during  the  later  half 
of  the  sixth  century,  wrote  a  work  on  the  sufferings  of  the 
Christian  Church  in  Britain  since  the  arrival  of  the  Saxons, 
entitled  Liber  Querulus  de  Calamitatej  Excidioy  et  Conquestu 
Britannm.  The  first  part  of  the  work  is  historical,  the 
second  consists  of  reproaches  against  the  British  kings  and 
clergy.  Gildas  wi-ites  with  gi*eat  animation  and  earnest- 
ness, but  his  language  is  clumsy  and  often  difficult  to  under- 
stand. It  is  printed  in  Monumenta  Historica  Britannica'. 
London,  1848,  Vol.  L 

237.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  we  also  meet 
with  ecclesiastics  who  tried  their  hands  at  poetry  on  sacred 
and  other  subjects,  e.g. 

\,  AratoTf  a  younger  friend  of  Ennodius,  who  is  spoken 
of  as  a  distinguished  rhetorician,  published  an  epic  poem, 
De  Actihus  Apoetolorum,  in  two  books,  with  two  dedications 
in  elegiacs.  The  poem  is  written  with  care  and  elegance; 
though,  as  in  all  the  metrical  productions  of  this  century, 
there  are  plenty  of  mistakes  against  prosody.     It  is  printed 


A.D.  14-600.]   FLAVIUS  CRESCONIUS  CORIPPUS. 


258 


in  G.  Fabricius'  Corpus  Poet  Christ.,  p.  569,  foil.;  also  in 
Migne's  Patrol,  Yol.  LXYIII 

2.  Venantius  Fortunatus,  a  native  of  Northern  Italy, 
studied  rhetoric  and  law;  and  then,  about  a.d.  564,  went 
to  Gaul  ostensibly  to  see  the  mii'acles  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours.  He  was  kindly  received  and  assisted  by  Gregorius, 
the  Frankish  historian.  He  there  became  attached  to  a 
Thuringian  princess,  Radegund,  and,  after  her  death  in  A.D. 
587,  wrote  her  biography,  and  became  a  priest ;  in  the  end 
he  even  rose  to  an  episcopal  see.  He  is  known  as  the  author 
of  several  works  in  verse  and  in  prose. 

a.  Miscellanea,  in  eleven  books,  a  collection  of  poems,  many 
of  which  are  addressed  to  Gregorius,  Radegund,  and  other 
persons  of  high  rank,  whom  he  eulogises  and  flatters  in  a 
very  abject  manner,  not  always  adhering  to  truth.  Some 
of  these  poems  are  hymns,  and  are  mostly  rhymed.  He 
appears  to  have  had  great  facility  in  versification. 

h.  An  epic  poem,  in  four  books,  on  St.  Mai-tin  of  Tours, 
which  is  evidently  written  without  much  thought,  diffuse 
and  trivial. 

c.  The  lives  of  several  saints  in  prose,  the  style  of  which 
is  forced,  heavy,  and  bombastic.  His  works  are  printed  in 
Migne's  Patrol,  Yol.  LXXXYIII. 

3.  Plavius  Cresconius  Corippus,  an  African  grammarian, 
wrote  epic  poems,  which  are  remarkable  for  their  formal 
correctness,  but  also  for  their  bombastic  style,  and  their 
author's  abject  servility.  His  subjects  are  historical,  but 
he  treats  them  in  the  manner  of  a  panegyrist.  His  works 
are: — 

a.  Johannis  sive  de  Bellis  Libycis,  in  seven  books.  The 
subject  of  the  poem  is  the  war  which  Johannes  Patricius, 
about  A.D.  550,  carried  on  against  the  Mauretanians  in  Africa. 
This  poem  was  published  for  the  first  time  at  Milan,  in  1820, 
by  Mazzuchelli. 

b.  De  Laudibus  Justini  Augusti.  This  work  is  written  in 
a  manner  so  diffuse  that  the  first  four  books  do  not  extend 
beyond  the  first  eight  days  of  Justin's  reign,  and  seems  never 
to  have  been  finished.  The  whole  is  so  overloaded  with 
praise  and  flattery  that  scarcely  a  trace  of  truth  or  fact  is 
discoverable  in  it.     The  versification,  however,  is  fluent,  and 


254 


HISTORY  OP   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V, 


/ 


is  modelled  on  Vergil  and  Claudian.  It  has  been  edited  by  I. 
Bekker  in  the  Bonn  edition  of  the  Byzantine  writers,  together 
with  the  works  of  Merobaudes. 

There  exists  further  an  anonymous  epic  called  Orestis 
Tragcediay  in  971  hexameters,  which  seems  to  belong  to  this 
period,  and  is  full  of  vulgarisms  in  language,  and  of  mistakes 
against  prosody.* 

238.  By  far  the  most  influential  theological  writer  of  the 
sixth  century  was  Pope  Gregory  I.  (a.d.  590-604).  He  had  no 
taste  for  the  classical  litemture  of  Rome,  but  enthusiastically 
favoured  monastic  institutions,  and  shared  the  superstitions 
and  the  credulity  of  the  times.  His  greatness  lies  in  his 
manly  character,  his  firmness,  and  his  great  talents.  We  can- 
not enter  here  upon  a  discussion  of  his  numerous  theological 
works,  such  as  his  homilies,  commentaries  on  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  on  the  duties  of  the  clergy,  etc.  His 
productions  most  important  to  us  in  an  historical  point  of 
view  are  his  letters  written  during  the  time  that  he  occupied 
the  papal  see.  He  did  much  to  improve  the  singing  of 
hymns  in  churches,  and  we  still  possess  nine  hymns  written 
by  him.  In  all  his  writings  Gregory  appears  as  a  man  of 
a  powerful  imagination,  which  generally  obscures  his  reason. 
His  style  of  writing  is  generally  difiuse,  but  at  the  same 
time  contains  many  brief  pithy  sentences  showing  his  prac- 
tical wisdom.  All  his  works  are  printed  in  Migne's  Patrol, 
Vols.  LXXV.-LXXIX.  There  are  a  few  other  theological 
writers  of  whom  works  still  exist,  which  are  printed  in 
Migne's  great  collection,  such  as  : — 

1.  Leander,  a  Carthaginian,  bishop  of  Sevilla,  in  Spain, 
and  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Pope  Gregory  I.  He  is 
the  author  of  numerous  theological  works. 

2.  Ungipjnus,  the  author  of  a  life  of  the  monk  Severinus, 
the  apostle  of  Noricum,  which  is  written  in  the  simple 
popular  language  of  the  timet 

3.  MartinuSy  a  Pannonian  abbot,  and  afterwards  arch- 
bishop of  Braga,  wrote  several  works  both  in  prose  and  in 
verse. 

*  Has  been  edited  by  C.  Schenkl:  Prague,  1867. 
t  There  is  a  separate  edition  of  this  work  by  A,  KefSchbaurnQr; 
gqhaffhausen,  1862. 


A.T).  14-600.] 


ISIDORUS. 


255 


239.  The  last  author  we  have  to  mention  as  belonging  to 
Latin  literature  is  Isidorus,  bishop  of  Sevilla,  where  he  died 
in  A.D.  640.  Though  he  did  not  possess  any  very  extensive 
knowledge  or  correct  judgment,  still  he  did  much  for  the 
preservation  of  the  ancient  literature  and  its  diffusion. 
Among  his  numerous  writings  on  history,  grammar,  and 
theology,  the  most  important  and  largest  bears  the  title 
Origines,  in  twenty  books.  The  first  four  treat  of  the  seven 
libei-al  arts;  books  six  to  eight  refer  to  religious  and  historical 
questions,  and  the  rest  is  mainly  devoted  to  grammar  and 
language,  and  is  chiefly  based  upon  the  Prata  of  Suetonius, 
whose  words  are  often  simply  copied.  The  Origines  are  a 
kind  of  encyclopaedia,  in  which  the  author  treats  of  a  great 
variety  of  subjects,  and  often  supplies  us  with  the  substance 
of  works  that  are  lost.  Another  work  of  Isidorus,  the 
object  of  which  was  likewise  educational,  beai^  the  title  De 
Natura  Eerurriy  and  is  a  kind  of  manual  of  physical  geogi-aphy 
compiled  partly  from  the  Prata  of  Suetonius  and  partly  from 
Christian  writers.* 

240.  With  Isidorus  we  must  close  our  survey  of  Latin 
literature.  The  Latin  language,  the  deterioration  of  which 
had  begun  long  before  the  invasion  of  Italy  and  the  provinces 
by  barbarians,  underwent  still  greater  and  more  sudden 
changes  through  the  settlement  of  the  conquerors  among  the 
Latin  speaking  populations.  It  may  indeed  be  assumed 
that  the  higher  classes  of  society  at  first  continued  to  speak 
and  write  Latin  with  some  degree  of  purity,  until  in  the 
end,  through  the  mingling  of  the  Teutonic  with  the  Latin 
elements,  there  were  formed  those  modern  languages  of 
which  Latin  is  still  the  basis,  or  rather  which  are  further 
developments  of  Latin  under  foreign  influences. 

Latin  literature  naturally  ceases  when  the  language  spoken 
differs  from  the  written  tongue.  During  the  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  centuries  the  spoken  language  was  in  a  state  of 
transition,  and  new  idioms  were  in  the  process  of  formation, 
but  as  yet  unsuited  for  literary  purposes;  those  who  wrote 
in  Latin  did  not  employ  it  as  their  native  tongue,  but  as  a 
language  acquired,  in  addition  to  the  native  dialect,  as  was 


1857. 


There  is  a  separate  edition  of  this  work  by  G.  Becker:  Berlin; 


256 


HISTORY  OF   LATIN   LITERATURE.  [PERIOD  V, 


the  case  with  the  Goth  JordaniS;  the  Briton  Gildas,  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Aldhelm,  and  afterwards  with  Boniface  and 
the  venerable  Bede;  and  they  wrote  in  Latin  because  it 
was  the  only  available  literary  language,  and  because  it  was 
understood  by  all  who  had  received  what  was  then  called  a 
liberal  education.  They  had  acquired  it  by  study  as  much 
as  a  pei-son  bom  in  a  distant  province  of  a  modern  kingdom 
has  to  acquire  the  litemry  language. 

241.  It  now  only  remains  to  cast  a  glance  at  the  state  of 
jurisprudence,  once  the  glory  of  the  Romans,  and  at  the  final 
codification  of  the  laws  under  Justinian. 

In  the  eastern  as  well  as  in  the  western  empire  the  neces- 
sity had  long  been  felt  of  collecting  the  laws  into  one  code  or 
body,  in  which  they  might  be  consulted  with  ease  not  only 
by  professional  lawyers,  but  by  any  one  who  had  occasion 
to  acquaint  himself  with  them.  In  the  western  empire, 
where  jurisprudence  had  well  nigh  ceased  to  be  cultivated, 
this  necessity  was  felt  to  be  more  pressing,  because  the 
relation  between  the  conquerors  and  the  conquered  had  to 
be  defined,  and  and  a  modus  vivendi  had  to  be  established 
between  them.  The  first  attempt  was  made  in  a.d.  500  by 
the  edict  of  Theodoric,  which  contained  154  articles  for  the 
guidance  of  judges  in  military  and  civil  cases.  Among  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain  and  Gaul  King  Euric  had  before  this 
published  the  Lex  Visigothorunij  or  Breviarium  Alarici^  and 
his  son  Alaric,  in  a.d.  506,  appointed  a  commission 
which  drew  up  the  Lex  Boma^ia  Visigothoitvin  to  regulate 
the  relations  between  the  old  Roman  provincials  and  the 
Visigoths.  Into  this  code  were  admitted  numerous  consti- 
tutions and  novelise  from  the  Theodosian,  Gregorian,  and 
Hermogenian  codes,  and  it  continued  for  centuries  to  be  the 
law  in  a  great  part  of  western  Europe.  In  a.d.  472  the 
king  of  the  Burgundians  established  the  Lex  Burgwiidionunif 
which  was  altered  in  a.d.  517,  and  is  sometimes  called  the 
Gundohada.  Its  laws  were  likewise  drawn  from  the  three 
above  mentioned  codes,  as  well  as  from  the  national  Bur- 
gundian  institutions. 

In  the  eastern  empire,  law  schools  had  continued  to  flourish 
after  Constantinople  had  become  its  capital,  and  the  study  of 
law  and  its  history  was  pursued  there  with  great  zeal.     In  a,d. 


A.D.  14-600.] 


isidorus. 


257 


528  the  Emperor  J  ustinian  appointed  a  commission  of  eminent 
lawyers  to  draw  up  what  is  now  called  Justinian's  Corpus 
Juris.     It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  Jws  vetus,  as  established 
by  Ihe  great  jurists  of  former  times,  and  the  jus  principahy 
or  the  laws  and  constitutions  of  the  emperors.     The  latter 
was  compiled  and  published  first,  but  six  years  later,  a.d. 
534,  a  new  and  revised  edition  was  made  by  a  commission 
headed  by  Tribonian.     This  commission  again  selected  and 
sifted   the   imperial   constitutions   from   the   earlier   codes, 
abridged  and  put  them  together  in  the  Codex  Justiniaueus^ 
in  twelve  books.     This  is  the  form  in  which  we  now  have  the 
work.     The  selections  from  the  jus  vetus  were  made  between 
a.d.  530  and  533,  in  fifty  books,  called  Digesta.     As  the  laws 
were  thus  fixed  once  for  all,  it  was  thought  desirable  to  have 
a  standard  book  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  law, 
and  its  composition  was  intrusted  to  Tribonian  and  two  other 
eminent  jurists.     In  performing  their  task  they  availed  them- 
selves chiefly  of  the  institutes  of  Gains,  and  the  result  was 
the  work  known  by  the  name  of  Justiniani  Institutioiies,  in 
four  books.     Additions  and  supplements,  under  the  name  of 
Novellce,  mostly  in  Greek,  continued  to  be  made  to  the  code 
of  Justinian  down  to  the  end  of  the  sixth  century.     All  these 
parts  combined  form  the  Corpus  Juris  of  Justinian,  and  by 
its  means  that  emperor  has  saved  for  posterity  the  treasures  of 
Roman  law,  and,  by  the  Digesta  in  particular,  he  has  enabled 
us  to  study  and  investigate  the  history  of  the  Roman  law. 
The  emperor  himself,  however,  had  no  such  lofty  ideas  when 
he  ordered  the  work  to  be  undertaken.      His  object  was 
to  immortalise  his  name,  to  establish  despotic   uniformity 
throughout  the  empire,  to  put  an  end  to  controversies  among 
jurists,  and  to  render  it  impossible  for  judges  to  act  according 
to  their  own  conscience  and  discretion.     Later  despots  were 
not  slow  to  discover  these  advantages,  and  tried  with  more 
or  less  success  to  introduce  the*  Roman  laws  of  Justinian 
into  their  own  dominions.     The  Corpus  Juris  has  often  been 
edited  with  and  without  commentaries.     A  good  edition  of 
the  text  is  that  of  J.  L.  G.  Beck:  Leipzig,  1829,  in  2  vols. 
The  best  edition  of  the  Digesta  alone  is  that  of  Th.  Mommsen 
and  P.   Kruger:    Berlin,    1866-70,   in   2  vols.;  and   of  the 
Institutiones  that  of  J.  E.  Kuntze:  Leipzig,  1869,  in  2  vols. 

R 


INDEX. 


Aburnius  Valens,  177. 
Accius,  L.,  34. 
Acilius,  C,  40. 
Acilius  Glabrio,  C,  37. 
Acron,  Heleuius,  192. 
Acta  Senatus,  97. 
Acta  Diurna,  97. 
Actius,  L.,  48. 
.ffilius  Gallus,  C,  128. 

JElina  Praeconinus  Stilo,  49. 

iElius  Sextus,  40. 

iElius  Spartianus,  198. 

iElius  Marcianus,  194. 

.^lius  Lampridius,  198. 

^lius  Tubero,  92. 

Amilius  Asper,  163. 

iEmilius  Macer,  103,  194. 

^tna,  152. 

Afranius,  43. 

Agrippa,  M.  Vipsanius,  lOQ, 

Agrippina,  139. 

Alfenus  Varus,  P.,  93. 

Alfius  Avitus,  196. 

Amafiuios,  62. 

Ambrosius,  216,  222. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  219. 

Amoenus,  241. 

Ampelius,  L.,  180. 

Ampius  Balbus,  Ti.,  94. 

Andronicus,  Livius,  23. 

Aniauus,  231. 

Annales  Maximi,  16. 

Annianus,  174. 

Annius  Fetialis,  125. 

Anniua  Floras,  P.,  173. 

Autistius  Labeo,  M.,  128. 

Aatonius  Castor,  138. 

Antoniufl,  M.,  49. 
Antonius  Naso,  M.,  94. 
Antonius  Julianus,  177. 
Antonius  Gordianus,  M.,  197. 
Apicius,  138. 

Apollinaris  Sidoniua,  240. 
Apuleius,  L.,  185. 
Aquila  Romanus,  199. 
Aquilius  Gallus,  C,  62. 
Arator,  252. 
Aristius  Fnscus,  113. 
Aruobius.  200. 
Arriufl  Menander,  190. 
Arruntiua,  L.,  125. 
Arruntius  StelJa,  L.,  159. 
Arulenus  Rusticus,  163. 
Asconius  Pedianus,  Q.,  145. 
Asinius  Pollio,  C.  101. 
Ateius  Capito,  C.,  129. 


Ateius  Praetaxtatus,  93. 

AtelJanse,  14. 

Atilius,  31. 

Atilius  Fortunatianus,  194. 

Atticus,  Ti.  Pomponius,  61. 

Attius,  L.,  34. 

Aufidius  Bassus,  135. 

Augustus,  Emperor,  99. 

Augustinus,  AureUus,  228 

Aurelius,  238. 

Aurelius,  M.,  Emperor,  184. 

Aurelius  Nemesianus,  152. 

AureUos  Olynipius  Nemesianus,  M.,  197» 

Aurelius  Prudentius  Clemens,  224 

Ausonius,  D.  Magnus,  213. 

Auspicius,  241. 

Avian  us,  2.34. 

Avienus,  Rufius  Festus,  212. 

Avitus,  242. 

Balbus,  173. 

Balbus,  L.,  93. 

Bible,  Ti-anslations  of,  216. 

Boetius,  or  Boethius,  245. 

Brutus,  D.,  94. 

Brutus,  M.,  94. 

Caecilius  Metellus,  40. 

Caelius  Antipater,  L.,  47. 

Cselius  Aurelianus,  177. 

Caesjus  Bassus,  150. 

Calidius,  M.,  88. 

CaUistratus,  190. 

Calpurnius  Piso  Fvugi,  L.,  46. 

Calpurnius  Siculus,  T.,  142. 

Calpurnius  Flaccus,  177, 

Carmina  Vatum,  13. 

Carvilius,  Sp.,  41. 

Cascellius,  A.,  88. 

Cassiodorous,  Magnus  Aurelius,  249. 

Cassius,  C,  94. 

Cassius  Parmensis,  94. 

Cassius  Hemina,  46. 

Cassius  Longinus,  138. 
Cassius  Severus,  129. 
Castricius,  T.,  177. 
Cato,  M.  Porcius,  37. 
Cato,  M.  Porcius  (the  son),  40. 
Celsus,  A.  Cornelius,  137. 
Censorious,  194. 
Cetliegus,  M.  Cornelius,  40. 
Cervidius  Scaevola,  Q.,  189. 
Charisius,  Aurelius  Arcadius,  205. 
Charisius,  Flavius  Sosipater,  211. 
Chirius  Fortunatianus,  219. 
Cicero,  M.  Tullius,  62. 


260 


HISTORY  OF  LATIN  LITERATURE. 


Cicero,  Q.  TuUius,  81. 
Cincius  Aliiaentus,  36. 
Claud  ianus,  Claudius,  226. 
Claudius,  Emperor,  138. 
Claudius  Mamertinus,  211. 
Claudius  Mariiis  Vii^tor,  237. 
Claudius  Tryphonius,  A.,  190. 
Claudius  Quadrigarius,  Q.,  50. 
Cle<loiiiu8,  244. 
Clodius  Tuscus,  127. 
Codex  Theotlosiauus,  239. 
Ccelestius,  231. 

Columella,  L.,  Jun.  Moderatus,  144. 
Commeutarii  Magistratuum,  17. 
Cominentarii  Regum,  18. 
Commodianus,  197. 
Cunseutius,  244. 
Cuiistantine,  Emperor,  204. 
Cornelius  Nepos,  86. 
Cornelius  Sevenis,  120. 
Cornelius  Sisenna,  L  ,  50. 
Cornelius  Sulla,  L.,  51. 
Comificius,  52. 
Cornificius,  Q.,  93. 
Coronatus,  242. 
Corpus  Juris,  257. 
Cremutius  Cordus,  A.,  134. 
Curiosum,  209. 
Cariatius  Matemus,  156. 
Curtius  Rufns,  Q.,  143. 
Cyprianus,  Thascius  Csecilius,  195. 

Damasus,  217. 

Dares  Phrygius,  216. 

Decimus  Laberius,  82. 

Dictys  Creteusis,  216. 

Digesta,  257. 

Diomedes,  212. 

Domitius  ilarsus,  113. 

Donatus,  Ti.  Claudius,  33,  208,  221 

Dositheus,  192. 

Dracontius,  241. 

DrepaniiLS  Pacatus,  219. 

Endelechius,  Severus  Sanctus,  233. 

Ennius,  Q  ,  28. 

Ennodius,  Magnus  Felix,  247. 

Epidius,  93. 

Eugippius,  254., 

Eumenius,  203. 

Eutropius,  210, 

Eutyches,  249. 

Exuperautius,  233. 

Fabius  Maxinius  Cunctator,  40. 

Fabius  Pictor,  G.,  36. 

Fabius  ^railianus,  45. 

Fabius  Maximiis  Servilianua,  Q.,  46. 

Fannius,  Caius,  47. 

Faustus,  240. 

Fenestella,  125. 

Fescennini  versus,  14, 

Firmicus  Maternus,  206. 

Flavius  Vopiscus,  198. 


Flavius  Cresconius  Corippus,  253. 

Flavius  Vegetius  Renatus,  221. 

Flavius  Maliius  Theodoiois,  231. 

Flavins  Felix,  242. 

FJorentinus,  242. 

Florua  Julius,  176. 

Fragmenta  Vaticaua,  205. 

Fratres  Arvales,  Song  of,  13. 

Frontinus,  Sex.  Julius,  16L 

Fronto,  M.  Cornelius,  178. 

Frontoniani,  177. 

Fulgentius,  Fabius  Planciades,  243. 

Fulvius  Labeo,  A.,  36. 

Fulvius  Nobilior,  M,,  40. 

Fundanius,  113. 

Furius  Philus,  46. 

Furius,  Q.,  49. 

B^uriua  Bibaculus,  M.,  82. 

Gaius,  183. 

Gavins  Bassus,  138, 

Gellius,  A.,  182. 

Gellius,  Cn.,  46, 

Gildas,  252. 

Granius  Licinianus,  181. 

Gratiua  Faliscus,  121, 

Greece,  influence  of  on  Rome,  21. 

Grewrianus  Codex,  194. 

Gregorius  of  Tours,  252. 

Gregory  I.,  Poi)e,  254. 

Grillius,  233. 

Hadrian,  Emperor,  173. 
Hermogenianus,  205. 
Helvius  Cinna,  C,  94. 
Herennius  Modestiuus,  194. 
Herenuius  Senecio,  163. 
Hieronymus  (St.  Jerome),  223. 
HirtJus,  A.,  85. 

Homer,  Lat.,  abridgment  of,  152. 
Horatius  Flacnis,  Q.,  109. 
Hortensius,  Q.,  61. 
Hostius,  49. 
Hysinus,  173. 
Uyginus,  C.  Julias,  126. 

Idacius,  243. 

Institutiones  Justiniani,  257. 
Isidorus,  255. 
Itineraries,  209. 

Joannes  Cassianus,  238. 

Jordan  is,  Jordanus,  or  Jornandes,  251. 

Juba,  199, 

Julianus,  231. 

Julius  Hilario,  Q., 

Julius  Obsequens,  211. 

Julius  Victor,  204. 

Julius  Capitolinus,  198. 

Julius  Romanus,  194. 

Julius  Titianus,  185. 

Julius  Africanus,  Sex.,  183. 

Julius  Caesar,  C. ,  83. 

Julius  Csesar  Stiabo,  C,  45. 


INDEX. 


261 


Junius  Brutus,  M.,  94,  47. 
Junius  Graccbanus,  48. 
Junius  Cordus,  195. 
Junius  Mauricianus,  183. 
Jus  Papirianum,  18. 
Justinus,  124. 
Juvenalis,  D.  Junius,  165. 
Juveutius,  36. 

Labeo,  36. 

Labieuus,  T.,  129. 

Lactentius  Firmianus,  201. 

Lsevius,  49. 

Lampadio,  48. 

Laws  of  Twelve  Tables,  19. 

Leander,  254. 

Leges  regia),  18, 

Lenseus,  93. 

Leo  I.,  Pope,  239. 

Lepidus,  M.,  46. 

Lex  Dei,  225. 

Licinius  Crassus,  P.,  40,  47. 

Licentius,  233. 

Licinius  Crassus,  L.,  49. 

Licinius  Imbrex,  31. 

Licinius  Macer,  C.,  51. 

Licinius  Calvus,  C,  95, 

Licinius  Lucullus,  L.,  51 

Licinius  Crassus  Mucianus,  M.,  155, 

Liscius  Lavinius,  31. 

Literature,  its  meaning,  9. 

Livius  Androuicus,  23. 

Livius,  Titus,  122. 

Lucanus,  M.  Annaeus,  149. 

Lucilius,  152. 

Lucilius,  C,  44. 

Lucretius  Cams,  T,,  88. 

Lutatius  Catulus,  Q.,  45,  48. 

Luxorius,  242. 

IWacrobius  Ambrosius  Theodos,  231, 

JNIsecenas,  C.  Cilnius,  100. 

!Mauiertus  Claudianus,  240. 

Manilius,  M.,  121. 

jVlanilius,  M'.,  47. 

Marcellinus,  250. 

Marcellus  (Empiricus),  221. 

Marianus,  196. 

Marius  Maximus,  195. 

Marius  Plotius  Sacerdos,  199. 

^larius  Mercator,  238. 

Martialis,  M.  Valeiius,  158. 

Martian  us  Capella,  234. 

Martin  us,  254. 

Masurius  Sabinus,  138. 

Matius,  C,  93. 

Matius,  Cn.,  49. 

Mem  mills,  C,  88. 

Merobaudes,  236. 

Jlessius  Arrusianns,  219! 

Metellus  Macedonicus,  Q.,  46. 

Minucius  Felix,  M.,  190. 

Modestus,  Julius,  138. 

Mucius  Scaevola,  P.,  47, 


Nccvius,  Cn.,  24. 
Nazarius,  204. 
Nenise,  13. 
Nerva,  Cocceius,  146. 
Nerva,  M.  Cocceius,  138. 
Nero,  Emperor,  139. 
Nigidius  Figulus,  P.    87. 
Nonius  Marcellus,  199. 
Notitia  Regionum,  :209. 
Novatianus,  196. 
Novius,  45, 

Ofiiius,  A,,  88. 

Oppius,  C,  85. 

Opt;itianus,  Publilius  Porphyrius,  204. 

Oratory,  earliest,  19. 

Orbilius  Pupillus,  88, 

Orieutius,  237. 

Orosius,  237. 

Ovidius  Njiso,  P.,  116. 

Pacuvius,  M.,  30. 

Palladius,  Rutil.  Taur.iEm.,  208. 

Palliatae,  24. 

Pandecta,  257. 

Papinianus,  iEmilius,  189. 

Papiuius  Statins,  P.,  157. 

Papirius,  L.,  40. 

Papirius  Justus,  189. 

Paulinus,  241. 

Pauliuus  Meropius  Pont.  Amic,  225. 

Paulus  Julius,  193. 

Paulus,  L.,  40. 

Pedius,  Sex.,  146. 

Pedo  Albinovanus,  120. 

Pelagius,  231. 

Pentadiiis,  202, 

Persius  Flaccus,  A,,  147.""^ 

Pervigilium  Veneris,  181. 

Petronius  Arbiter,  150.    — 

Phc-edrus,  138. 

Phocas,  244. 

Piso,  C,  52. 

Plautus,  T.  Maccius,  25. 

Plinius  Secuudus,  C,  153. 

Plinius  Caicilius  Secundus,  C,  170. 

Political  pamphlets,  9Q. 

Pompeius,  244. 

Pompeius  Festus,  125,  192. 

Pompeius  Trogus,  124. 

Pompilius,  45. 

Pomponius,  L.,  45. 

PomiMjnius  Mela,  145. 

Pomi^Kjnius  Marcellus,  M.,  138. 

Pomponius  Porphyrion,  192. 

Ponticus,  120. 

Popillius  Lsenas,  36. 

Porcius  Licinius,  45. 

Postumius  Albinxxs,  A.,  41. 

Praetextatai,  24. 

Priscianus,  247. 

Privata  Monumenta,  17. 

Proculus,  138. 


262 


HISTORY   OF   LATIN    LITERATURE. 


Propertitts  Sextus,  115. 
Proeper,  238. 

Quinctius  Atta,  T.,  43. 
Qaintilianus,  M.  Fabiiis,  160. 

Regiones  urbis  Romse,  209. 
Remmius  Palaemon,  Q.,  13& 
Repoeianus,  202. 
Rufinofl,  244. 
Rufua  Festus,  211. 
Rasticius  Elpidius  DomnuluB,  240. 
Rutilius  Riifus,  P.,  48. 
Riitilius  Lupus,  P.,  131. 
Rutilius  Numatianus,  236. 

Sabinus,  120. 

Saleius  Bassus,  156. 

Baliorum  Carmen,  12. 

Sallustiua  Crispus,  C,  90. 

Salvianus,  239. 

Balrius  Juliaaus,  176. 

Santra,  J  27. 

Baturae,  15. 

Saturnian  verse,  12. 

Scipio,  P.  Cornelius,  37. 

8cipio  Africanus,  45. 

Scipio  Nasica,  P. ,  41. 

Scribonius  Curio,  C,  93. 

Scriptores  Historiae  Augustse,  195,  197 

Sedulius,  241. 

Bemproniua  Asellio,  P.,  48. 

Bempronius  Tuditanus,  48. 

Senatus  Consultum  de  Baccanalibus,  23. 

Seneca,  M.  Annseus,  rhetor.,  130. 

Seneca,  L.  Annseus,  philos.,  140. 

Septimius  Severus,  196. 

Serenus  Sammonicus,  192. 

Serenas  Sammonicus,  Q.,  196. 

Serriun  Honoratus,  220. 

Servios  Snlpicius,  113. 

Sestius,  P.,  88. 

Seztios  Niger,  129 

Sextus  Ciodius,  93. 

SeztuB  Pomponius,  177. 

Silius  Italicus,  C,  156. 

Siculus  Flaccus,  173. 

Binnioa  Capito,  127. 

Solinus,  Julius,  199. 

Songs  at  banquets,  13 

Soranus,  45. 

Statios,  see  Papinius. 

Statins,  Cseciiius,  31. 

Suetonius  TranqoiUas,  C,  174. 

Sulpicia,  160. 

Sulpicius  Galba,  46. 

Sulpicius  Gallus,  C,  40. 

Sulpicius  Rufus,  Ser.,  62. 

Sulpicius  Severus,  230. 

Sulpicius  Apollinaris,  192. 

Sjmmachus,  Q.  Aurelius,  217. 

Symphoaius,  234. 


Tacitus,  Cornelius,  166 

Tanusius,  94. 

Terentianus,  200. 

Terentius  Clemens,  183. 

Terentius  Scaurus,  Q.,  177. 

Terentius  Van-o,  P.,  93. 

Terentius  VaiTO,  M.,  56. 

Terentius,  P.,  32. 

Tertullianus,  Q.  Septimius  Florens,  190, 

191. 
Theatres  in  Rome,  42. 
Thrasea  Ptetus,  147. 
Tiberius,  Emperor,  134. 
Tibullus,  Albius,  114. 
Tichonius,  231. 
Ticidas,  94. 
Titinius,  34, 
Titius,  113. 

Theodorus  Priscianus,  233. 
Tiro,  M.  Tullius,  81. 
Trabea,  31. 
Trebatius,  88. 
Trebonius,  C,  94. 
Tribonianus,  257. 
Turnus,  159. 
Turpilius,  34. 
Turannius  Rufinus,  223. 

Ulpins  Marcellus,  183. 
Ulpianus,  Domitius,  193. 

Valgius  Rufus,  C,  113. 

Valerius  Catullus,  C.  95. 

Valerius,  36. 

Valerius  .^Jdituus,  45. 

Valerius,  C,  45. 

Valerius  Flaccus,  C,  155. 

Valerius  Antias,  50. 

Valerius  Probus,  M.,  147. 

Valerius  Cato,  88. 

Valerius  Maximus,  136. 

Valerius  Messala  Corvinus,  M.,  102. 

Vargunteius,  Q.,  48. 

Varius  Rufus,  L.,  102. 

Vegetius,  P.,  221. 

Velleius  Paterculus,  M.,  135. 

Venantius  Fortunatus,  253. 

Vergilius  Maro,  P.,  103. 

Verginius  Rufus,  159. 

Verrius  Flaccus,  M.,  125. 

Vestricius  Spurinna,  159. 

Vettius  Aquilius  Juvencus,  C.  205. 

Vibius  Sequester,  232. 

Victor,  251. 

Victor,  Sext.  Aurelius,  210. 

Victor  Vitensis,  242. 

Victorinus,  238. 

Victorinus,  C.  Marius,  207. 

Vincentius,  238. 

Voltacilius  Pilutus,  L..  52. 

Volusius  Marcianus,  L.,  183. 

Vulcatius  GaUicanus,  198. 


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